Analysis Of To Kill A Mockingbird - 1693 Words

Judicial Process Course Paper For my paper I have chosen to analyze the movie â€Å"To Kill a Mockingbird.† This movie is based on the novel – by the same name – written by Harper Lee. The story has two major plotlines. One follows Jem, Scout, and Dill as they try to uncover the secrets behind the infamous â€Å"Boo† Radley. It’s only at the end of the movie that we learn â€Å"Boo’s† real name to be Arthur, and that we discover he actually tries to protect people, as he saved Jem and Scout’s lives. The other major plotline, and the one more relevant to this class, follows Atticus Finch, Jem and Scout’s father, as he tries to represent Tom Robinson. Mr. Robinson is an African American man who has been charged with raping Mayella Ewell. The movie then†¦show more content†¦However, we never hear of an initial appearance before the grand jury indictment. This phase is when the defendant appears before a magistrate j udge and is informed of the charges against them and the constitutional rights they are afforded. Furthermore, after hearing about the grand jury the movie progresses directly to the trial. This is not an accurate portrayal because it entirely skips the arraignment phase. Arraignment is a very important step in the criminal justice process because it is at this point that the accused will enter a plea. The audience never saw this phase; therefore, we have no idea if Tom formally plead guilty or not guilty to the charge of rape. However, it can be assumed Tom’s plea would’ve been not guilty as he denies the charges during the actual trial. In terms of the actual trial, it was highly dramatized and clearly intended for a cinematic audience. For one, there were no opening statements given and the trial started off going directly into witness testimony through direct and cross examinations. This is highly inaccurate as the opening statements are a crucial part of the trial in that they aid the jury in understanding the complex legal issues that will unfold (Budziak). Next, the witness testimonies were highly dramatized. When Mr. Ewell was on the stand, he attempted to get up to leave before Atticus even had the opportunity to cross examine him and also openly yelled at him while testifying. Such would never beShow MoreRelatedAnalysis of to Kill a Mockingbird2365 Words   |  10 PagesI’d like to analyze the extract from a book which is entitled â€Å"To kill a mockingbird†. The author is Harper Lee, an American author known for her 1960-Pulitzer-Prize-winning and who is considered now by many to be a literary icon. Harper Lee was born in 1926 in the state of Alabama. In 1945-1949 she studied law at the University of Alabama. Her novel ‘To kill a mockingbird’ which deals with the issues of racism that were observed by the author as a child in her hometown was awarded the Pulitzer PrizeRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Of Kill A Mockingbird 1271 Words   |  6 PagesJourney Tasopulos Brannen ELA-8 19 April, 2015 Novel Analysis: To Kill A Mockingbird Selection: I selected this book because its the best book I have ever read. I read To Kill A Mockingbird last year and my class wrote an essay about this book, since I already know so much about this book I thought it would be a nice and quick read. I thought it would be a great enjoyment to refresh my memory of this epic book. I watched the movie soon after I read the whole book and it was very fun to pick outRead MoreTo Kill a Mockingbird Analysis933 Words   |  4 PagesThe intriguing novel, To Kill A Mockingbird is written by the prestigious author Harper Lee. Lee has utilised the lifestyle and attitudes towards ‘African-Americans in the 1930s to create a novel which presents the reader with Lees attitudes and values. The dominant reading of the novel is focused on the issues of racial prejudice, but there are also a number of other alternative and oppositional readings. Examples of this are the Marxist and feminist readings which can be applied to the textRead MoreAnalysis Of Kill A Mockingbird 843 Words   |  4 PagesThere are couple of reason that Mr.Raymond act drunk and one of them is that he wants people to leave him alone. One major theme from To Kill A Mockingbird is to not judge a person by his appearance. This theme refers to Tom Robinson, Boo Radley, and Raymond because they seem to be bad from a normal person perspective,but on the inside they’re good humans who try to live there life but can’t because the world has people who interfere with them. This essay will explain about how to character areRead MoreTo Kill a Mockingbird Compassion Analysis600 Words   |  3 PagesTo Kill a Mockingbird Compassion Analysis Philosopher Albert Schweitzer explains, â€Å"The purpose of human life is to serve, and show compassion and the will to help others†(BrainyQoute.com) In order to follow the purpose of life you have to teach the purpose of life. Compassion is meant to be shared and spread throughout the whole world. In To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee Atticus takes this moral upon himself, and teaches Jem and Scout about compassion in Maycomb. Throughout the novel To KillRead MoreTo Kill A Mockingbird Analysis1126 Words   |  5 PagesJim Crow laws so she could end the mental and physical abuse her father caused. Since Mayella is white and female, she has power. Although she lives behind a dumpster this still provides a significant amount of power for her. In the book â€Å"To Kill A Mockingbird† Harper Lee shows Mayella’s power for class during the trial. Even though Mayella has less power in class than race in gender it is still a significant amount to help her. â€Å"Yes, suh. I felt right sorry for her†¦.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"DBQ: Is Mayella powerful?†Read MoreTo Kill A Mockingbird Analysis1378 Words   |  6 PagesThe Influence of Setting on Themes and Events in To Kill A Mockingbird Vs. A Time to Kill A setting is used in literature to highlight the major themes and also shape the events of the narration. Though set in different time periods, the settings of To Kill a Mockingbird by Lee Harper and A Time to Kill by Joel Schumacher serves to reinforce various themes that highlight various aspects of American history. Racial segregation and issues associated with it such as the lifestyle of the Southern stateRead MoreCritical Analysis Of To Kill A Mockingbird1761 Words   |  8 PagesTo Kill A Mockingbird is an acclaimed novel that provides a meritorious exploration on the subject of human nature and distinctively regards several themes with great importance. Discussed through recollections from a child’s perspective, the novel provides a variety of portrayals and wholehearted messages, creating an illustration with a consequential meaning once the indications are interpreted. It is also worthwhile to acknowledge the themes that coexist within the book that are introduced th roughRead MoreTo Kill A Mockingbird Analysis947 Words   |  4 PagesMockingbirds are innocent and free from corruption,but how would you think that some characters are Mockingbirds? To Kill a Mockingbird is about a lawyer, Atticus Finch, simply defending an African American, Tom Robinson from a rape charge. Atticus Finch, Tom Robinson, and Boo Radley are innocent and free from the disease of Maycomb County. That disease is racism and hate. Atticus is a man made from morals, Tom is a scared African-American, and Boo just wants to get away from the chaos outside hisRead MoreTo Kill A Mockingbird Analysis706 Words   |  3 Pagescharacters in â€Å"A Time to Kill† by John Grisham and â€Å"To Kill a Mockingbird† by Harper Lee show this by taking action into their own hands. In the book â€Å"A Time to Kill,† Carl Lee Hailey, the father of Tonya Hailey; sought vengeance on Billy Ray Cobb and Pete Willard for raping his daughter. Throughout the book, it shows the experiences Carl Lee has while being on trial against the state of Mississippi. He was ultimately successful in winning the case. In the book â€Å"To Kill a Mockingbird,† Arthur Boo Radley

Comparative Analysis Of Rene Descartes s Philosophy

Comparative analysis Every philosopher interprets knowledge in different ways and also has unique approaches to the Liberal Arts. In history, the great philosophers based their findings off of science and reasoning . One such philosopher was Josef Pieper who followed the Neo-Thomistic belief . In other words, he looked to bring back the medieval education on philosophy and Roman catholic theology. He also involved himself in the study of sociology as well due to the issues that were present in the social atmosphere . His views on knowledge and liberal education was that they were both necessary in developing a healthy and â€Å"pure† environment in the society . Rene Descartes was a philosopher of a different time however. His dissertation on†¦show more content†¦However, Descartes did not base most of his beliefs off of religion, in fact, he based them off of scientific facts and evidence . Theology was a strong principle of his as he made crucial connections between religion and philoso phy in his book . Pieper and Descartes both agreed on the fact that Christianity plays a huge role for the outlay for philosophy. They both had the same goal of educating their followers on the basis of Universal wisdom and common sense . Ethics, however, were not a main principle of his in his writings . He was more focused on the truth of â€Å"sound judgement† which he classified as â€Å"le bons sens† . Next, the method each philosopher used was different due to individual beliefs. Pieper achieved his goals through Catholic philosophy and using its vocabulary . By doing this, he appealed to the greater Catholic population at the time and it proved to be very effective. He believed that the National Socialist party would be successful in adapting the views of Catholicism but he was proven wrong later as he viewed the Nationalist party to be an evil influence. He went about achieving his goal by preaching originality and social equality as it pertained to philosophy . A good example of his views on personal happiness and equality can be when he said,Show MoreRelatedSociology and Suicide3277 Words   |  14 Pagesidentify the social nature of suicide. This was facilitated through the availability of suicide-rate statistical data collated from a variety of societies located within European countries. From this quantitative research, now termed ‘multivariate analysis’, he devised three conclusions. Within single societies the incidence or rate of suicide remains constant over time, the suicide rate varies between societies and that the suicide rate varies between different groups within the same society. HoweverRead More The Role of Genes in the Development of Behavior Essay3044 Words   |  13 Pagestabula rasa, a blank slate that is gradually filled with experience. On the other hand, the French philosopher Rene Descartes, was a seventeenth century nativist who believed that knowledge of the world was largely innate or inborn and that nature (heredity) determined certain abilities and capacities. Popular in the eighteenth century was the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau who claimed that children should be free to develop as nature dictates. However towards theRead MoreNature Science6230 Words   |  25 Pagesreproducible and veriï ¬ able by other individuals. In other words, good science is based on information that can be measured or seen and veriï ¬ ed by other scientists. The scientiï ¬ c method, it could be said, is a way of learning or a process of using comparative critical thinking. Things that are not testable or falsiï ¬ able in some scientiï ¬ c or mathematical way, now or in the future, are not considered science. Falsiï ¬ ability is the principle that a proposition or theory cannot be scientiï ¬ c if it does notRead MoreHerbert Spencer Essay13142 Words   |  53 Pageswas an English philosopher, scientist, engineer, and political economist. In his day his works were important in popularizing the concept of evolution and played an important part in the development of economics, political science, biology, and philosophy. Herbert Spencer was born in Derby on April 27, 1820. His childhood, described in An Autobiography (1904), reflected the attitudes of a family which was known on both sides to include religious nonconformists, social critics, and rebels. His fatherRead MoreMetz Film Language a Semiotics of the Cinema PDF100902 Words   |  316 Pagescinà ©ma, tome 1. Reprint. Originally published: New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-226-52130-3 (pbk.) 1. Motion pictures—Semiotics. 2. Motion pictures— Philosophy. I. Title. PN1995.M4513 1991 791.43 014—dc20 90-46965 C1P The French edition of Christian Metz s Essais sur la signification au cinema, volume 1, was published by Editions Klincksieck in 1971,  © Editions Klincksieck, 1968. ÃŽËœThe paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements ofRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pagesand permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, or you may fax your request to 201-236-3290. Many of the designations by manufacturers

How Far Do You Think Shylocks Jewishness Is Responsible for His Actions and Attitudes in The Merchant of Venice Essay Example For Students

How Far Do You Think Shylocks Jewishness Is Responsible for His Actions and Attitudes in The Merchant of Venice Essay In the Merchant of Venice, Shylock is shown to be an evil character, who tries to kill Antonio and is stopped by the good Antonio. Shakespeare probably made the play for a 16th Century, prejudicial and anti-Semitic audience, so a more modern audience would sympathize with some of Shylocks actions. Shylock is a Jewish Puritan, which makes him very religious, and an extremist. We know this is the because in the play Shylock tells Jessica to close his doors after him so the music outside doesnt penetrate his house, What, are there masques? Hear you me Jessica- Lock up my doors. Shylock is in the business of usury, which is charging interest on money lent, from the very start. It is not unusual that mainly Jews were into money lending because in the Middle Ages Jews were expelled from all other trades, so they had no choice but to go into usury. Antonio is a Christian who is the enemy of Shylock, because he insults him in public and charges fair interest. Fair interest was charging interest when the period of borrowing was over and the sum hadnt been paid back. I hate him for he is a Christian But more in low simplicity, He lends out money gratis and brings down the rate of usuance. A modern audience would sympathize with Shylocks actions of trying to seek revenge upon Antonio, under the pretence of law because Antonio has humiliated him, is ruining his business, stopping his way of earning a living and also due to the fact that Jews were being persecuted in that period. Even when Shylock has lent the money Antonio is still insulting him, but throughout the play we find that Shylock is referred to as the Jew, as if Jews were like beasts and I think I can go as far as to say that he put in the same context as the devil throughout the play. Such quotes in (4.1) as, Antonio. I pray you think you question with the Jew. In that quote you could almost replace the word Jew with devil and Antonio talks about Shylock as if it was judgment day and no one could alter Antonios fate. This obviously would be very appealing towards a prejudicial Elizabethan audience, who are surrounded by rumours of Jews eating little children and charging families with high extortion rates of usury, which was all built through the years. Shakespeare shows Shylock loves his money more than his daughter and he even goes as far as wanting her dead, as long as he had his jewels. I would have my daughter dead at my foot, and the jewels in her ear! A modern audience would again feel sorry for him because he has lost his daughter to Christianity and he also has Tubal giving him bad news about how his daughter spent his money, which is part of his Jewish life and his identity, but they would definitely question their sympathy for Shylock after he wishes his daughter dead at his feet. I think it is Shylocks attitudes towards Antonio, his temper and his greed for money, which makes him want to kill Antonio, not his general feelings towards Christians, which stand out to be the main reason. Some could argue against this because when the Jews came to Europe they were forced into money lending, so it became a part of their Jewish life and in a way it became a part of their Jewishness. .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade , .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade .postImageUrl , .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade , .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade:hover , .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade:visited , .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade:active { border:0!important; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade:active , .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u38bd36a8e0deec66dbab1a08cf731ade:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Is the Merchant of Venice Suitable for a Modern Audience EssayIn the play Shylock keeps referring back to the Torah (Jewish Bible) to prove that usury was right whenever Antonio undermines it (1:3). Directly interest- mark what Jacob did. Jews chose to isolate themselves from the rest of the community because they thought they were the chosen people of God. Shylock also isolates himself from society in the play. But I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray with you (1:3) An audience would not sympathize with Shylock because he chooses to be isolated from society, which gives the impression that he is slightly superior as a Jew to other people, which attracts insults from other people. This shows that Shylocks Jewishness is responsible for his actions and attitudes towards Antonia and other Christians in the play. At court Shylock is being insulted even more because he wants to kill Antonio, which makes him even more determined and creates sympathy from a modern audience. Antonio also get back at Shylock, but telling his friends to leave the Jew alone and keeps talking about how no one can save him from the Jew because he trying to die like a martyr. Shylock justifies his claim of Antonias flesh but as he is only Jew he still harassed and no one is willing to listen to him, which still gives a sympathetic view to the modern audience. You have among you a purchased slave. Let them be free, marry them to your heirs? Why sweat they under burthens? Let their beds. You will answer The slave are ours. A modern audience would side with Shylocks views because of the good argument he puts up about the Christians who are as guilty as him for the way they treat their slaves. Also Shylock uses this argument to prove his case by saying that if you can buy slaves so can I, Antonio owes me three thousand ducats so I now own him and can do what I like with him. This puts in to doubt whether it is Shylocks Jewishness that leads to his actions or human nature. Again there is another emphasis of the Jew being referred to as the devil, which puts under doubt who is in the wrong, Shylock or the Christians? We know Shylock very clever and uses the law as a disguise to murder Antonio and Shakespeare has added a sarcastic comment, to build up even more hatred among the Elizabethan audience. An oath, an oath, I have an oath in heaven. Shall I lay perjury upon my soul? No, not for Venice. We see throughout the play Shylock uses examples from the Torah and his religion to back up his arguments against the Christians, but for the wrong reasons. In the end Shylock demands nothing but the bond and he gets caught up in Portias trap, where she uses the law to stop Shylock from taking any flesh from Antonia. Take then thy bond, take thy pound of flesh, But, in the cutting it, if thou dost shed One drop of Christian blood, thy lands and goods Are by the laws of Venice confiscate. Then Gratiano starts to mock Shylock for praising the judge and calling him a learned judge and this keeps the sympathy for Shylock. Throughout the play the sympathy for Shylock has been kept by the modern audience because of the circumstances he was put in before he wanted revenge. Although several times in the play Shylock says that the real reason he wants to kill Antonia is because he brings down the rate of usury. So the question we must ask ourselves is whether it is Shylocks greed for money or his religious views that are behind his actions and attitudes in the play? .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 , .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 .postImageUrl , .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 , .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1:hover , .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1:visited , .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1:active { border:0!important; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1:active , .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1 .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u74efc6591f67a950a04f7b85de4c41e1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Process Drama EssayShylock actions were also influenced by Tubal (3:1) who kept giving him bad news, about his daughter spending his money and then good news about Antonios bad luck. Fourscore ducats at a sitting! Fourscore ducats! Tubal. There came divers of Antonios creditors in my company to Venice It seems that in this scene Tubal saw his chance of winding Shylock up enough that he became bloodthirsty. You have to include such factors as Tubals influence, Shylocks greed, his religious views and the traditional Jewish way of life before coming to a definite conclusion and I believe it is not really Shylocks Jewishness which, cause him to take the attitudes and actions in the Merchant of Venice.

Project Paper on Ganga Soap Essay Example

Project Paper on Ganga Soap Paper Marketing Management Project On Ganga Soap INDEX Executive Summary Industry Analysis 4 Ps of Marketing * Product * Price * Place * Promotion EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report brings out the launching of Ganga Soap, failure to make a mark in toilet soap industry, being re-launched again, failing yet leading to absolute end of the product in the market. Launched by Godrej Industries in 1993, Ganga soap was produced from the holy water of the Ganges. It was considered to be an innovation on the part of the company. With the focus on the lower to middle consumer segment, it was priced affordably. The promotion techniques used for selling the product ended as the company claimed it to be created from the holy water of Ganga. With the achievement of fairly enough sales, the company looked forward to derive more. By involving its brand endorsement through famous Bollywood personality like Govinda and thereby, the promotions took off very well. By giving the tagline as â€Å"now bath in Ganga†, the message being conveyed to the customers was very clear. The company targeted both urban and rural areas for its marketing and specially with promoting it as soap from The Ganga, it centred around the people with religious beliefs. We will write a custom essay sample on Project Paper on Ganga Soap specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Project Paper on Ganga Soap specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Project Paper on Ganga Soap specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer However, there were many reasons that in spite of the strong initiatives for marketing the brand, it failed to sustain itself. With the company Godrej’ s fallout with PG being considered as one of the main reasons, the fact that the product was not being able to sustain itself due to its differentiation of being made from the water from the Ganges. After it was re-launched by Godrej again in 1997 it was named as â€Å"Doodh Ganga†. The company’s desperate attempts to gain momentum through the product all went down. By promoting in the similar way, it was well understood that it failed to make any mark as the people became more aware of relating the product on realistic. The amount of pollution affecting the Ganges and purity of water declining making even more difficult to the company to gain sales. By introducing the product merely on the religious basis, it was understood that the company needs a broader scale to make the product strike the customer. Therefore, a strong strategy is needed for bringing the soap to a level where it can match up to the standards of its own counterparts. Introduction Godrej Consumer Products (GCPL) is a leader among Indias Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) companies, with leading Household and Personal Care Products. Our brands, which include Good Knight, Cinthol, Godrej No. 1, Expert, Hit, Jet, Fairglow, Ezee, Protekt and Snuggy, among others, are household names across the country. We are one of the largest marketers of toilet soaps in the country and are also leaders in hair colours and household insecticides. Our Good Knight brand has been placed at an overall rank 12 and continues to be the most trusted household care brand in the country in Brand Equitys Most Trusted Brands Survey 2010. Branch Offices in Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata and Chennai ensure pan-India coverage, while factories located at Malanpur (Madhya Pradesh), Thana (Himachal Pradesh), Katha (Himachal Pradesh), Guwahati (Assam) and Sikkim cater to the diverse requirements of our product portfolio. We also have a strong emerging presence in markets outside India. With the acquisition of Keyline Brands in the United Kingdom, Rapidol and Kinky Group, South Africa and Godrej Global Mideast FZE, we own international brands and trademarks in Europe, Australia, Canada, Africa and the Middle East. As part of increasing our global footprint, we have also recently acquired Tura, a leading medicated brand in West Africa, Megasari Group, a leading household care company in Indonesia and Issue Group and Argencos, two leading hair colorant companies in Argentina. We are driven by our mission to continuously enhance the quality of life of consumers in high-growth markets with superior-quality and affordable home care, personal care and hygiene products. The brand â€Å"Ganga† by its name says that it is derived from the holy water of the Ganges. It is evident that it is not only targeting the customer base having sentiments with the holy water i. e on religious norms but also the typical customer base in urban areas. Thus, to create a giant base of customer, it has to be well understood that the customer needs a proper requirement of the product. Thus, it is the constant process of the company to understand the requirements of the customers and bring out the best in it. The strategies involving the Ganga soap in improving its marketing will include the four P’s of marketing which are places, product, promotion and price. Using these methods, the whole product process of launching this soap will be processed. Industry Analysis The toilet soaps market is estimated at 530,000 tap including small imports. The market islittered over with several, leading national and global brands and a large number of small  brands, which have limited markets. The popular and premium brands include Lifebuoy, Lux,Cinthol, Liril, Rexona, and Nirma. Toilet  soaps, despite  their divergent brands, are  not well  differentiated by  the consumers. Itis, therefore, not clear if it is the brand loyalty or experimentation lured by high volumemedia campaign, which sustain them. A consequence is that the market is fragmented. It isobvious that this must lead to a highly competitive market. Toilet soap, once only an urban  phenomenon, has now penetrated practically all areas including remote rural areas. Theincremental demand flows from population increase and rise in usage norm impacted as it is  by a greater concern for hygiene. Increased sales revenues would also expand from upgradation of quality or per unit value. As the market is constituted now, it can be divided into four price segments: premium,  popular, discount and economy soaps. Premium soaps are estimated to have a market volumeof about 80,000 tones. This translates into a share of about 14 to 15%. Soaps form the largest pie of the FMCG Market with bathing toilet soaps accounting for  around 30% of the soap market, by value. Currently, the soap industry is divided into threesegments namely Premium, Popular economy/Subpopular. To  fight  competition,  major  players  Hindustan  Unilever  Ltd  (HUL),  Godrej and Wipro Consumer Care Lighting are now drawing up fresh game  plans. And the accent is clearly on innovation to gain mind share as well as market share inthis overcrowded  category. P’S OF MARKETING {MARKETING MIX} 4p’s of marketing is the base of marketing. The decisions in marketing namely depends on mix marketing . This concept give sense to the owner that in what way product can be produced in market. A manufacturer can capture the market by applying 4p’s systemically. 4p’s of marketing is as und er: 1. Product 2. Price 3. Place (distribution) 4. Promotion There are two types of promotion- 1. advertising 2. sales promotion 1 . Product:- Product is anything that is offered to satisfy needs and wants of the customer. So that they can easily survive. . Price:- When ever company launches a product in the market they have to fix certain price according to the product so that customer buys the product economically. 3. Place (distribution) Place is also called distribution. If a company launches a product in market it should be made available conveniently so that the consumer can easily buy it. If distribution is not proper in the market the product may fail. 4. Promotion Promotion is the mode of communicating with the customer. This is the area where people get to know about the product. PRODUCT Godrej products have been aptly considered as a marketing miracle and this is reflected in the strength of the brand. Godrej has successfully challenged and changed the conventions of soap marketing and today leading business schools are analysing its strategies to demystify this miracle. Godrej’s core marketing thrust revolves around prompting consumer trials by offering a good quality product at most competitive price and retaining these new consumers by continuously offering the same Value For Money equation. This is borne by the fact that today Godrej can boast of a strong brand loyalty from its 400 million consumer base. Godrej has been increasingly successful in extending its brand equity to other product categories like deodorants, Premium Toilet Soaps, hair colour, thus opening new vistas to the field of Brand Building. By launching its old product in a new way to target the lower middle customer base segment, it is reaching out to a wider scope by improving Ganga soap in terms of added ingredients, soothing fragrance and keeping the skin fresh. Not only it contains the new added functionalities but also the trust of keeping up with the relationships with the new and existing customers. PRICE For harried housewives, struggling to balance their monthly budgets, or people who cannot afford premium soaps, for its natural properties, it is indeed affordable. It is much cheaper than its counterparts like dettol, which had already gone well out of their reach. Its cleansing power is far superior. It is estimated that by the mid 2011, the burgeoning sales of Ganga soap will reach a rate of growth that is twice or thrice that of the industry in general. Moreover, Ganga operates in the small-scale sector and, therefore saves an enormous amount of excise duty that multinationals have to pay on every unit produced. The latter simply could not hope to bring the price down to a level that was attractive enough for the middle and lower-middle classes, which will be the bulks segments for Ganga sales. The pricing policy adopted by Godrej for Ganga soap i. e. adequate Quality at an Affordable price has challenged the mighty HLL’s Dettol. Ganga soap 50gm| 15. 00| Ganga soap 100 gm| 25. 00| The Ganga soap name itself is a guarantee of quality for the consumer. It will find ready acceptance. Today, Ganga toilet soap is priced in the range of Rs. 15. In comparison to Gangas price range, HLLs toilet soap brands are priced at a slight premium. LifeBuoy is priced at Rs 24, and LifeBuoy Gold at Rs29. The price of Rexona is Rs29. 50. Primarily the area where Ganga will save millions will be in labor costs. Being a cottage industry Ganga was not compelled to abide by minimum wage rules. that started to mechanize their production process. Ganga’s labor costs for 8000 workers is estimated to be between Rs 15-20 per person day in comparison to HLL who paid their semi-skilled workers approximatelyRs 30-40 per person day. DISTRIBUTION {PLACE} Ganga is estimated to sell over 800,000 units of soap in the starting year and expects a 35% share of the Indian soap market, thus striving to become one of the world’s biggest soap brands. The brand promotion efforts are complemented by distribution reach and market penetration, through a country wide network of 400 distributors and over 2 million retail outlets, making the product available from the smallest rural village to the largest metro. The product set up for Ganga a parallel distribution and sales channel consisting of independent sales force. A two-tier network, the distribution channel is flat enabling swift market response. The company takes great care that the new brand did not cannibalize on the existing brands. The company portfolio today complements the product range, furthering the companys strategy of Value for Money. PROMOTION Gangais looking for advertising only after product is launched in place. It is believed that nothing can be more irritating for a customer than to see a product advertised, and then find it has not reached his grocer. Advertising just tells people that a product is available. After that, the product has to stand on its own feet on quality and price. The appearance on the cover has been designed to bring out the freshness of the Ganges, and senses filling with the fragrance of rose water keeping the skin fresh and good smelling. The advertisement that has been made ready for on television has been devised keeping in mind the psyche and choice of the middle class housewives. With the increase the popularity of the T. V. Soaps and there amplified impact on their thinking and daily life, these serials have become an inseparable part of their lives. The new commercial has thus tried to encash on this very aspect. The commercial is a reflection of these soaps and in a way a mockery of these T. V. serials. Thus the commercial has been made to attract a substantial amount of the audience. Furthermore Ganga is shown a â€Å"new and improved look† in its promotional activities which will also be achieved through this new commercial.

Mobile Phone Use Could Bring Risks essays

Mobile Phone Use Could Bring Risks essays Living in the age known for technology, we have grown up watching undeveloped land evolve into industrial centers covered with power lines. We are now capable of viewing vital parts of our internal systems thanks to MRIS, x-rays and other technology. We are able to cook in minutes thanks to microwaves and can communicate and retrieve information at lightning speed thanks to computers, faxes and cell phones. But what does this mean to you? Technology has changed the living conditions of a variety of cultures around the world, but primarily in the way we communicate with one another. In particular, the cell phone has allowed us to communicate, receive emails and surf the Internet while on the go. The small electronic devices have proven to be a great convenience in the business world, and also allowing us to stay in touch with family and friends. Everywhere we go, no matter the location, most likely we will hear or see a cell phone, but what if this necessity of todays world is c reating tumors in your brain? The majority of the civilized world is known to communicate on a mobile phone daily. Each day that passes more and more people sign up for a wireless plan and receive a mobile phone to communicate with. This could be a problem if you consider the fact that our environment is covered with electromagnetic rays and radio frequencies that did not exist 100 years ago. Most people do not realize that when you talk on your cell phone, your voice is transmitted over the antenna as radio frequency radiation at a range that might have serious health consequences. It is assumed by scientists that the radiation from the antenna cooks brain cells, like a microwave cooks food, increasing the chance of forming brain tumors. Multiple amounts of research have been carried out in hopes of answering the question of whether cell phones are to blame for the development of certain types of cancers in the brain. In this exten...

Poder Conjugation in Spanish, Translation, and Examples

Poder Conjugation in Spanish, Translation, and Examples Poder is a common auxiliary verb that is frequently used as the equivalent of can or to be able to. Its conjugation is highly irregular; it is a stem-changing verb, since the -o- in the stem often changes to -u- or -ue-, and the ending may also change. There are no other verbs that follow the same pattern. This article includes poder conjugations in the indicative mood (present, past, conditional, future), the subjunctive mood (present and past), the imperative mood, and other verb forms. Poder Present Indicative In the present indicative tense, the stem change o to ue occurs in all the conjugations except nosotros and vosotros. Yo puedo Yo puedo hablar dos idiomas. I can speak two languages. Tà º puedes Tà º puedes bailar bien. You can dance well. Usted/à ©l/ella puede Ella puede hacer un excelente trabajo. She can do an excellent job. Nosotros podemos Nosotros podemos correr una maratà ³n. We can run a marathon. Vosotros podà ©is Vosotros podà ©is ir a la fiesta. You can go to the party. Ustedes/ellos/ellas pueden Ellos pueden tocar un instrumento. They can play an instrument. Preterite Indicative There are two forms of the past tense in Spanish: the preterite and the imperfect. The preterite describes completed actions in the past. Some verbs have slightly different meanings when they are conjugated in the preterite versus the imperfect. When using poder in the preterite, it implies that the action was successfully accomplished, while in the imperfect tense it only gives the sense that the subject had the ability to do the action, but it is not clear whether it was accomplished or not. For this reason, poder in the preterite is translated as was able to. Also, notice that the stem changes from o to u for this irregular conjugation of the preterite. Yo pude Yo pude hablar dos idiomas. I was able to speak two languages. Tà º pudiste Tà º pudiste bailar bien. You were able to dance well. Usted/à ©l/ella pudo Ella pudo hacer un excelente trabajo. She was able to do an excellent job. Nosotros pudimos Nosotros pudimos correr una maratà ³n. We were able to run a marathon. Vosotros pudisteis Vosotros pudisteis ir a la fiesta. You were able to go to the party. Ustedes/ellos/ellas pudieron Ellos pudieron tocar un instrumento. They were able to play an instrument. Imperfect Indicative The imperfect tense describes ongoing or repeated actions in the past. Poder in the imperfect tense implies that someone had the ability to do something, but it doesnt say whether they did it or not. Therefore, poder in the imperfect can be translated as could or used to be able to. Yo podà ­a Yo podà ­a hablar dos idiomas. I could speak two languages. Tà º podà ­as Tà º podà ­as bailar bien. You could dance well. Usted/à ©l/ella podà ­a Ella podà ­a hacer un excelente trabajo. She coulddo an excellent job. Nosotros podà ­amos Nosotros podà ­amos correr una maratà ³n. We could run a marathon. Vosotros podà ­ais Vosotros podà ­ais ir a la fiesta. You could go to the party. Ustedes/ellos/ellas podà ­an Ellos podà ­an tocar un instrumento. They could play an instrument. Future Indicative The future tense is usually conjugated by starting with the infinitive form, but notice that poder is irregular, since it uses the stem podr- instead. Yo podrà © Yo podrà © hablar dos idiomas. I will be able to speak two languages. Tà º podrs Tà º podrs bailar bien. You will be able todance well. Usted/à ©l/ella podr Ella podrhacer un excelente trabajo. She will be able todo an excellent job. Nosotros podremos Nosotros podremos correr una maratà ³n. We will be able torun a marathon. Vosotros podrà ©is Vosotros podrà ©is ir a la fiesta. You will be able togo to the party. Ustedes/ellos/ellas podrn Ellos podrn tocar un instrumento. They will be able toplay an instrument. Periphrastic  Future Indicative   Yo voy a poder Yo voya poder hablar dos idiomas. I am going to be able to speak two languages. Tà º vasa poder Tà º vasa poder bailar bien. You aregoing to be able todance well. Usted/à ©l/ella vaa poder Ella vaa poder hacer un excelente trabajo. She isgoing to be able todo an excellent job. Nosotros vamosa poder Nosotros vamosa poder correr una maratà ³n. We aregoing to be able torun a marathon. Vosotros vaisa poder Vosotros vaisa poder ir a la fiesta. You aregoing to be able togo to the party. Ustedes/ellos/ellas vana poder Ellos vana poder tocar un instrumento. They aregoing to be able toplay an instrument. Present Progressive/Gerund Form The progressive tenses use estar with the gerund, pudiendo. Notice that the stem changes from o to u in the gerund. Although the auxiliary verb poder can be used in the progressive form, it is not really used in that way in English, thus the translation might sound a bit awkward. Present Progressive ofPoder est pudiendo Ella est pudiendo hacer un excelente trabajo. She is being able to do an excellent job. Past Participle The perfect tenses are made by using the appropriate form of haber and the past participle, podido. Present Perfect of Poder ha podido Ella ha podido hacer un excelente trabajo. She has been able to do an excellent job. Conditional Indicative Just like the future tense, the conditional tense is usually conjugated by starting with the infinitive form, but in the case of poder the stem is actually podr-. Yo podrà ­a Yo podrà ­a hablar dos idiomas si viviera en otro paà ­s. I would be able to speak two languages if I lived in another country. Tà º podrà ­as Tà º podrà ­as bailar bien si practicaras ms. You would be able todance well if you practiced more. Usted/à ©l/ella podrà ­a Ella podrà ­ahacer un excelente trabajo, pero es muy perezosa. She would be able todo an excellent job, but she is very lazy. Nosotros podrà ­amos Nosotros podrà ­amos correr una maratà ³n si entrenramos suficiente. We would be able torun a marathon if we trained enough. Vosotros podrà ­ais Vosotros podrà ­ais ir a la fiesta si te dieran permiso. You would be able togo to the party if you got permission. Ustedes/ellos/ellas podrà ­an Ellos podrà ­an tocar un instrumento si tomaran clases. They would be able toplay an instrument if they took lessons. Present Subjunctive The present subjunctive has the stem change o to ue in all of the conjugations except nosotros and vosotros, just like in the present indicative tense. Que yo pueda Mam espera que yo pueda hablar dos idiomas. Mom hopes that I can speak two languages. Que tà º puedas El instructor espera que tà º puedas bailar bien. The instructor hopes that you can dance well. Que usted/à ©l/ella pueda El jefe espera que ella pueda hacer un excelente trabajo. The boss hopes that she can do an excellent job. Que nosotros podamos El entrenador espera que nosotros podamos correr una maratà ³n. The trainer hopes that we can run a marathon. Que vosotros podis Patricia espera que vosotros podis ir a la fiesta. Patricia hopes that you can go to the party. Que ustedes/ellos/ellas puedan Su padre espera que ustedes puedan tocar un instrumento. Your father hopes that you can play an instrument. Poder Imperfect Subjunctive There are two options for conjugating the imperfect subjunctive, and both options have the stem change o to u. Option 1 Que yo pudiera Mam esperaba que yo pudiera hablar dos idiomas. Mom hoped that I could speak two languages. Que tà º pudieras El instructor esperaba que tà º pudieras bailar bien. The instructor hoped that you could dance well. Que usted/à ©l/ella pudiera El jefe esperaba que ella pudiera hacer un excelente trabajo. The boss hoped that she could do an excellent job. Que nosotros pudià ©ramos El entrenador esperaba que nosotros pudià ©ramoscorrer una maratà ³n. The trainer hoped that we could run a marathon. Que vosotros pudierais Patricia esperaba que vosotros pudierais ir a la fiesta. Patricia hoped that you could go to the party. Que ustedes/ellos/ellas pudieran Su padre esperaba que ustedes pudieran tocar un instrumento. Your father hoped that you could play an instrument. Option 2 Que yo pudiese Mam esperaba que yo pudiese hablar dos idiomas. Mom hoped that I could speak two languages. Que tà º pudieses El instructor esperaba que tà º pudieses bailar bien. The instructor hoped that you could dance well. Que usted/à ©l/ella pudiese El jefe esperaba que ella pudiese hacer un excelente trabajo. The boss hoped that she could do an excellent job. Que nosotros pudià ©semos El entrenador esperaba que nosotros pudià ©semoscorrer una maratà ³n. The trainer hoped that we could run a marathon. Que vosotros pudieseis Patricia esperaba que vosotros pudieseis ir a la fiesta. Patricia hoped that you could go to the party. Que ustedes/ellos/ellas pudiesen Su padre esperaba que ustedes pudiesen tocar un instrumento. Your father hoped that you could play an instrument. Poder Imperative The imperative mood is used to give orders or commands. It is not common to give someone the command to be able to do something. Therefore, the imperative forms of poder sound awkward, especially in the negative forms. Positive Commands Tà º puede  ¡Puede bailar bien! Be able to dance well! Usted pueda  ¡Pueda hacer un excelente trabajo! Be able to do an excellent job! Nosotros podamos  ¡Podamos correr una maratà ³n! Let's be able to run a marathon! Vosotros poded  ¡Poded ir a la fiesta! Be able to go to the party! Ustedes puedan  ¡Puedan tocar un instrumento! Be able to play an instrument! Negative Commands Tà º no puedas  ¡No puedas bailar bien! Don't be able to dance well! Usted no pueda  ¡No pueda hacer un excelente trabajo! Don't be able to do an excellent job! Nosotros no podamos  ¡No podamos correr una maratà ³n! Let's not be able to run a marathon! Vosotros no podis  ¡No podis ir a la fiesta! Don't be able to go to the party! Ustedes no puedan  ¡No puedan tocar un instrumento! Don't be able to play an instrument!

Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Finance - Essay Example The interstate and intrastate deregulation of the trucking industry in 1980 and 1994 that helped expand the industry from mere trucking of goods to lifting them by air that paved the way of the modernization of the package and parcel industry. UPS (United Postal Service) One of the companies that were established early was UPS (United Postal Service) which was known as UPS Air Operations back 1929. It closed shop during the recession and resumed operations in 1953 albeit its air operations were only limited to East and West coasts. By 1978, it was already operational in every state and was granted an authorization by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration to have its own aircraft. Fedex The second player to follow UPS in the package and parcel industry is Fedex which was incorporated in 1971 but only became operational on April 17, 1973. The name Fedex was derived from Fedreal Express at a time when its founder Fred Smith was in the process of securing a contract with Federal Reser ve Bank. Fedex begun international operations by 1975 and grew rapidly when it acquired Tiger International Inc. in 1989 and Caiiber System in 1998 which is now known as Fedex Ground. It also went early in the Chinese market when it acquired Evergreen Internation Airline’s cargo authority to deliver in China. Perhaps the multitude of services that delivery and package industry now offers to its customer can be attributed to Fedex because it first introduced services that we are now familiar today such as same day and next delivery, delivery guarantee, etch. DHL and TNT The other two competitors in package and parcel industry are DHL and TNT. DHL however differentiates itself from Fedex because it is more focused on the international market unlike UPS which caters to both. Its customer bases are located in Europe, Latin America, Middle East, Australia and Africa. Due to its focus on the international market, DHL was also the first company to provide China an express transporta tion service. TNT is also player in the package and parcel industry that like DHL is more focus on its international market. II. Evolution of the company's competitive position   Although Fedex’s entered in the industry later than UPS, it was however the pioneer of the many innovative services that are now practiced in the industry. It also started in the US domestic market but has geographically expanded its operation in a short period of time. It only started operations in 1973 but already had an international presence 16 years later (1989) with the acquisition of Tiger International Inc and Evergreen International Airlines. But perhaps it is Fedex’s innovativeness that revolutionized its competitive position. Many of the idea and the many options that customers enjoy now about parcel and package delivery were Fedex’s ideas. Fedex introduced the same day, next day delivery, deferred time specific delivery options, delivery guarantees and even the idea of tra cking numbers on monitoring the movements of packages and parcels. In addition to the traditional parcels and packages, Fedex also transcended its services to logistics and financial services. Having said this, it would be safe to conclude that the Fedex’s competitive position is brought and hedged on its innovativeness. III. Competitive position

Dosage and Calculation Mistakes with Medication Essay

Dosage and Calculation Mistakes with Medication - Essay Example At two months of age, the infant was been admitted to the healthcare facility to undergo a pyloric stenosis repair. The attending physician ordered a 0.2-0.4 mg morphine sulfate to help alleviate the post-operation pain. The administering nurse normally uses the 5mg/ml morphine sulfate. However, due to the absence of the usual 5mg/ml vial, she decides on using the 10mg/ml vial but at a reduced quantity of 0.04ml as per her calculations. She double-checks her calculation and dosage with another nurse for a second opinion. However, the over prescription error occurs during the administration of the morphine sulfate when she draws 0.4ml instead of the intended 0.04ml (Keyes, 1998). Shortly after the administration of the ten times high dose, the infant suffers from respiratory difficulty in his mother’s arms. Further inspection by the nurse reveals that the infant is experiencing a respiratory arrest. The nurse if forced to administer a narcotic antagonist and resuscitate the infant. However, after successfully stabilizing the infant, the medical team does not realize that the cause of the infant’s respiratory arrest was a direct result of the high morphine sulfate dosage. They make an incorrect assessment of the course of the respiratory arrest. The infant suffers another respiratory failure because of receiving a high dose of morphine sulfate again. The administering nurse and the medical staff are forced to take the infant for further observation and diagnosis. They later realize that there was an over prescription of the infant’s medication. Therefore, they had to change the high dose to a correct one. The infant was later discharged i n good health. The healthcare facility handles the conduct and act of its staff who are on duty. Therefore, the parents of the infant sued the hospital for malpractice and negligent cause of emotional stress (Keyes, 1998). Medication

Engineering Project Management Essay Example for Free

Engineering Project Management Essay .) Why do most people get the order of development that is from objectives/constrains to scope, back the front? Does it means that they don’t know what they are doing, but rather they are going to through motions in a mechanical/ unit thinking fashion? Or are the people unaware of the components of systematic problem solving and how fit together? Answer: Most people do prepare to get the order of development that is from objectives/ constrain to scope, /back front because people wants it to have the answer of their needs and wants as directly to the point or succinctly enough to the correct answer. People seem to be very economical and time conscious as well. Also right order hinders to focus on objectives why one should make interest to the order. To people whom did order that is from objective know a lot if the program or has already that vast knowledge of the program. Related studies of the brand and Brand Communications: Understanding the relationship between consumers and brand is crucial to differentiation in word products as well as to communicate effectively with them. This course is devoted to its analysis to what the brand mean to the consumers through different career and lecture, including models that give clues on issues as investment needs and communication disciplines better suited to reach effective marketing targets. Hence, showing above examples give the idea that customer has a very good background and knowledge of the program order. Thus mostly they should have to see to it that the orders they will aim to suit their knowledge or facts they learn beforehand to ensure better development they sought to aim. The users awareness are very much acquainted with their responsibilities that’s why they are looking on orders that is sought to direct needs they wanted to have. Likewise, people all knows much the suitable problems that are suited to the systematic answer to the problem. There is no doubt have the ignorance of people to those people ordered such program. Mostly they do have already the knowledge to reach out the needs of the problem for themselves. Q2.) Consider a project with which you have been involved and consider the time horizons of the program involve. How many programs were necessary and what time horizon was used in each program? Answer: Upper level program simplified example a project involving a conference. (Work parcel names have been abbreviated because of spaces limitations – work items are simplified.) For this program example, needs to consider the time horizon involve. Considering the presentation the representation of the program having overall program, which is the major work, showed also major parcels, milestone and key resources. Then the next presentation is for a medium range program showing details over the next shorter program that follows then the daily program. By looking at the presentation there was four programs involve and can be taken into consideration each of which has different time horizon depending on the task or degree of emphasis the program to consider. There is that time constrain from the highest level down to next level. The time allotment differs like from highest rank that needs a biggest time allotted, followed by the next higher time consumption then next followed by the lowest time allotment. In the lower level, the time is given daily task compared to other program as well. Now it must to see to it that at different levels of program it has also different time horizon so that we have to make good at the start since there was that saying, the first impression last. Meaning, that the starting work program should be done perfectly so that it may issue along with the preliminary project program, a tendency will occur that entire project will develop into a detailed execution and a well-planned program. Q3.) Why do you believed there have been no negligence action brought against project managers? Do all project managers act in a reasonable industry accepted fashion? Do all project finish on schedule under cost and to better than expected quality? Answer: Project managers belong to the senior management program in a higher level. Owner per see took all the risk provided by the company. So no one dares to questions negligence action brought against the manager since he or she was the brain of the system. All the decision and moves of the manager should all followed by the subordinates. Well for humanitarian reason there were a case also that subordinates can react bad action or decision made by the manager. So probably the subordinate go against the manager and questions his personal actions maybe. So tendency the subordinates will questions the credibility of the manager. Well, we can take into accounts that manger is a human being so he has or she has that weaknesses too. But a fact that the managers are the one manages the company; the subordinates in humanitarian reason can right away react to what her or his fashion to go against the manager. Not all project finish on scheduled time of deadline were all under cost and to better than that of expected quality. If in case such situation to occur then that is one of its kind to cherish and to prioritized if ever the next project will come, it will be the best model or should to follow in the future activity. But usually if the project finishes under cost, it is expected that the results sometime below or maybe just meet the quality that is expected to come. No wonder that cost and expenses will goes hand in hand in quality products. Now a days seldom or none at all you could find under cost that has good quality. The reason is the fact that economy underwent in all aspect of society. Q4.) Why are people found it hard to define the scope and detail of the work involved in project management? Answer: People find it hard to define the scope and details of the work involve in project management since in every company has its own principle of management. In each company there is varied principle that is injected in the management of the company. The reasons of these are depending on the needs and interest of the company scope of preparation. So for us people who are just followers or subordinates just depend on the outcomes but not the makers of such. Not all people knows or knowledgeable enough to the process and what’s was going on the company itself. There is that so called hidden documents that are not supposed to be displayed on public for security purpose and reason. The same a person even how one so introvert to showed what was her or his personality will be to the public but still she or he has that attitude that only him or her knows better. Such characteristics are also present in every company to be a successful one. It should be the case to be done to hide some documents coz might be other program or company will imitate the success of one company so the identity might be duplicated and that identity of the company can be protected as well. Q5.) Tender documents usually comprise the following,   . All notice(s) to tender . All condition of tendering (including form of tender) . The general conditions of contract (to be) . The special contract (to be) . The specification . The drawings . The schedule of rates (prices)/bill of quantities of rates (if any) * List other special arrangement of which you are aware that sometimes hold during the tender period? Answer: The period of adjustment is very crucial period. This is called the tender period in which starting transaction will be done tenderly. But if with stress and plenty of commands will make it very confusing on the part of the doer. So at tender period all notices should be imparted one at a time. No overlapping and should be short and concise so confusion will be avoided. Conclusions and generalization are made to be clear and worth discussing, so the doer can easily grasp and understand the matter. Other special arrangement to considered at tender period is to put into details the rules and policies that imposed in the process so it will goes smoothly along with the rest of accompanying rules and regulation posted. Primarily these rules and regulations must be clear and understood well by every member in the company. Q6.) Is it possible to have one section of the tender documents purely related to administrative matters, and one section purely related to contractual matters/or they necessarily linked. Explain your view. Answer: In my own view, there must be a separate confidential section of tender documents that is for purely related to administrative matter and separate to contractual matter. Not necessarily that the two tender contacts link together but both must only parallel to each other. The reason why they should be separated because per records must have their own identity for the purpose but has its only one aims for the success of the project. Matters that is confidential, not proper to discuss openly to the public for discussion or what so ever. That confidential matter is only good for inner transaction that only the one concerned knows the secrecy of the documents but it should all documents parallel for the purpose of improvements and success of the program as well. In other words, it is by virtue of the fact that mangers are organizationally compelled to make a difference to the resources they combined via performing the function of planning, organizing, leading, controlling, etc., that certainly characteristics of the managing task. Lets take into consideration an example of principles. â€Å" Neo-Marxist perspective on management has emphasized the centrality of management contract in securing transformation of labor power to actual labor in context of capitalist relation of production† ( Ackroyd, Stephen. Page 38.). Reference: Realist Perspective on Management and Organization Contribution. Stephen Ackroyd- editor, Steve Fleetwood, Publisher :Routledge. Place of Publication: London. Publication Year; 2000. Page no. 38.

Compare and contrast the poems The Tyger and The Donkey and Essay

Compare and contrast the poems The Tyger and The Donkey and discuss which poet gives us the clearest depiction of humanity. William Blake is a wealthy, upper-class writer who separates himself from the rest of the wealthy community. Blake has a hate for the techniques used by many of the wealthy, company owners who gain and capitalise through cheap and expendable labour, supplied by the ever-growing poverty in the country. Blake makes a point to try and reveal this industrial savagery through his work. "The Tyger" is presented as a metaphorical approach to the struggle between the rich and the poor; good and evil. The several references to good and evil reinforce this idea and meaning. "The Tyger" holds one great metaphorical element, which is, what created the tiger? Good or evil? It raises many theories for the tiger's existence but the main point is to show that there is good and evil in everyone and everything. Blake shows us how something so beautiful can really be both beautiful but still retain a certain ferocity and savagery. Such as the wealthy factory owners of the 18th century, they offered a well-paid job and good employment benefits, but that was all just a faà §ade. The truth was cramped and dangerous working conditions, low pay and long hours; yet the people continued to labour in these factories at their own expense, while the wealthy owner sat back and watched workers toil and cash flow. The metaphor for this is like temptation, desperation and greed can lead people to be fooled, though true these people weren't greedy yet they were desperate for money to survive, although they could not judge correctly for themselves and became entrapped in the businessman's deception. Just like "The T... ...tent, the final stanza sums up everything within the poem, after all the questions it comes to a conclusion in the form of a final question: "What immortal hand or eye dare frame thy fearful symmetry?" "The Donkey" has a unique rhythm, one that also relates to the animal being referred to. The rhyme pattern imitates the donkeys walk, 1-2-1-2, this concept isn't easily recognised, but to notice it, shows the depth of the poem. Chesterton either included this simply by chance or meant to do it, which shows a strong backbone to his writings. Both poems are similar in many respects and both writers share common ideas, the use of animals to portray ideas and the views they have about human kind. Both "The Tyger" and "The Donkey" show elements of each other, and this is reflected in the writer, two great minds, with great mindsets on life and human kind.

Farenheit 451 Reflection

Reflection #1 Cipriano Echavarria Farenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury Pg. 72 â€Å"You can’t build a house without nails and wood. If you don’t want a house built, hide the nails and wood. If you don’t want a man unhappy politically, don’t give him two sides to a question to worry him; give him one. Better yet, give him none. Let him forget there is such a thing as war†. (72) Censorship has stroked the world for many decades; fearful governments have been hiding information or modifying it to its citizens. Why? Why are governments afraid of the knowledge of their people?Knowledge is power, and throughout history we’ve seen how man is always in search for more knowledge, curious on finding explanations to unanswered questions and on analyzing both sides to a question. Knowledge of people has caused many problems to world governments, many revolutions and wars have started due to the fact that citizens have encountered a new form of thinking. Fahrenh eit 451 portrays a futuristic society in which the government has censored everything, from books to newspapers and from T.V shows to Radio shows. This society never experiments conflict or disagreement because everybody is taught the same things and therefore think the same way. This has made me think on which is actually the best way to rule a society. Is it the way most countries in the world implement, an uncensored and free-thinking way, were due to the different opinions and thoughts many conflicts are created which lead to death, torture and cruelty. Or is it the way shown in the book, were everybody is thought to think the same way.I arrived to a conclusion and basing myself on the Human Rights Declaration, people should be free on what information they want to know and on how they want to think, but they must be taught to respect differences, and to be tolerant in order to avoid conflict. Reflection #2 Cipriano Echavarria Farenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury Pg. 181 I really enjoy ed myself and learned a lot while reading this book. I’ve never liked fiction or realistic-fiction books but I’ve got to admit that this book will make me think twice whenever I’ll have to choose between a fiction and a non-fiction book.The author did a really god job on creating a Futuristic place were many things were associated to reality but had different roles. For example, firemen instead of having to extinguish fire had to create fires which burned books. This makes you think about reality and ask yourself questions about how would society be if roles were inverted, if firemen instead of extinguishing fires created them, if policemen instead of providing security against thefts and murders would attack you, if drugs were legal etc.The book not only provided an interesting perspective on how would a society be if everyone thought the same way but it also gave many lectures about love and friendship. It showed how Montag (main character) didn’t love his wife and that even though he pretended and tried to be happy with her and tried to love her wasn’t able to do it. This made me think about the importance of love, and of never trying to trick your feelings on trying to make them love a person who you really don’t, it also made me think (as harsh as it could sound) if I really loved my girlfriend or if she was just a person who physically and mentally attracted me.Finally the author did a great job in writing many quotes that relates to everyday situations, one of the quotes that I most liked and related to was: â€Å"We cannot tell the precise moment when friendship is formed. As in filling a vessel drop by drop, there is at last a drop which makes it run over; so in a series of kindnesses there is at least one which makes the heart run over. † The author used this quote to explain Montags feelings towards a girl named Clarisse, which after a short time being friends Montag started to love.This quote extreme ly relates to a situation I experienced in the past, my best friend and I let our hearts â€Å"run over† and after many years of being friends we fell in love. Fahrenheit has been probably the book from which I’ve most learned about and the one with I could relate the most; it’s my new favorite book. It’s curious how things in life just arrive in the perfect moment. A week ago I was in the UN model of Barranquilla discussing Extrajudicial Executions and censorship done by the government; coincidentally Fahrenheit 451 is based on different types of Extrajudicial Executions and censorship done by the government.

Love for Cooking Essay

Goal: In this paper I tried to open to different ideas to cooking opposed to giving directions about how to cook. I tried to provide each reason with two examples to give readers a better understanding about what food can really be about. Evaluation: I feel like I did good on the overview on covering all the basics on cooking to where it’s understandable and relateable opposed to writing is as a recipe or directions list that most people would think cooking is about. Cooking a satisfying dish has three aspects. The first aspect that is usually the most important is eating with the eyes. An example is how the dish is plated, how it smells, and how appealing and appetizing it looks to the eye. Another example that compares to the first example is that if food is plated sloppy or looks and smells unappetizing, it generally doesn’t catch peoples attention. A second aspect that relates to the first aspect is using fresh ingredients. Using fresh ingredients means a healthier meal, and also getting natural vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, and ect. Another example is using fresh food opposed to processed food, because everyone wants to knows what they’re eating. One last aspect is making the dish taste fantastic. A dish that tastes good has people eating more of it, even though it might not be good for them to over-stuff. Another reason is people asking for the recipe or asking the chef to prepare their meals boost confidence in the chef knowing she made a good meal for everyone. One thing that will always remain is that feeling of providing something delicious for the community that has them cominging back and a sense of happiness and successfullnes in a chef.

Diary Writing An Unforgettable Experience Essay Example

Diary Writing An Unforgettable Experience Essay Example Diary Writing An Unforgettable Experience Paper Diary Writing An Unforgettable Experience Paper Diary Writing An unforgettable Experience Dear diary, Summer holiday is always a wonderful time for everyone, especially for me. Yesterday was a good day because of the bright sunshine, the lovely sleeping and eating. My life (was so) ;perfect during this Summer vacation. While I was having tasty sandwiches for lunch, my best friend, Tummy, called. How sweet it is for a friend to call you when you really need her! But she just called to ask me about the HOMEWORK! Was shocked at once. I havent done any of it! Oh my God! How could finish all of it in only 2 days? I quickly went back to my room and threw out all the things from my schoolbag. There were tons Of homework, including Chinese, English, Maths and 28 days diaries(that I needed to I looked at the clock again and again. It was already 9 p. M. So, I took all of it down to my grandfathers room and hoped that he could help me. Grandpa, I know you are handsome and strong! So, please Can you help me to do my homework? I know my grandpa well. He is too soft- hearted. He always helps me and teaches me a lot of things about my tough homework. He has never said no! I thought he could say yes this time as well. He smiled at me and at last said This was all because of my mum. ) As she walked by and heard our conversation, she looked up at grandpa and me with a scowl, we were so scared that we finally gave up. What an unforgettable day! Need to do all of the homework by myself in 2 days!? After I had done all of them, I got a cold and fever.

Lake Superior State University Admissions

Lake Superior State University Admissions Lake Superior State University Admissions Overview: The majority of applicants interested in Lake Superior State University are admitted each year. With an acceptance rate of 91%, most students with grades and standardized test scores that are average or better will get in. To apply, visit the schools website for application instructions and important deadlines.   Admissions Data (2016): Lake Superior State University Acceptance Rate: 91%Test Scores 25th / 75th PercentileSAT Critical Reading: 430 / 540SAT Math: 430  / 520SAT Writing: - / -What these SAT numbers meanMichigan public university SAT score comparisonACT Composite: 20  / 25ACT English: 19 / 26ACT Math: 18 / 25ACT Writing: - / -What these ACT numbers meanMichigan public university ACT score comparison Lake Superior State University Description: Lake Superior State University is one of  Michigans 15 public universities; its campus is located in Sault Ste Marie on the site of the former U.S. Armys Fort Brady. It is on the smaller side, with just over 2,500 students, a student/faulty ratio of 15  to 1, and an average class size of fewer than 30 students. LSSU offers a long list of academic programs from its five colleges and schools: the College of Arts, Letters, Social Sciences and Emergency Services; the College of Business and Engineering; the College of Natural and Mathematical Sciences; the College of Nursing and Health Sciences; and the School of Education. The university is one of only three in the country to offer a fire science program. With more than 60 student clubs and organizations as well as intramural sports, there is plenty to do on campus. LSSU is a member of the NCAA Division II  Great Lakes Intercollegiate Athletic Conference  (GLIAC), but the universitys ice hockey team competes in the NCAA Division I Central Collegiate Hockey Association (CCHA) and has won five national championships. Enrollment (2016): Total Enrollment: 2,099  (all undergraduates)Gender Breakdown: 49% Male / 51% Female86% Full-time Costs (2016- 17): Tuition and Fees: $11,019  (in-state)Books: $1,100 (why so much?)Room and Board: $9,442Other Expenses: $1,600Total Cost: $22,161   Lake Superior State University Financial Aid (2015- 16): Percentage of New Students Receiving Aid: 96%Percentage of New Students Receiving Types of AidGrants: 86%Loans: 59%Average Amount of AidGrants: $9,830Loans: $6,167 Academic Programs: Most Popular Majors:  Accounting, Business Administration, Criminal Justice, Elementary Education, Exercise Science, Fire Science, Fisheries and Wildlife Management, Nursing Transfer, Graduation and Retention Rates: First Year Student Retention (full-time students): 72%Transfer-out Rate: 5%4-Year Graduation Rate: 21%6-Year Graduation Rate: 42% Intercollegiate Athletic Programs: Mens Sports:  Ice Hockey, Cross Country, Tennis, Track and Field, Basketball, GolfWomens Sports:  Basketball, Volleyball, Tennis, Track and Field, Softball, Golf, Cross Country Data Source: National Center for Educational Statistics If You Like Lake Superior State University, You May Also Like These Schools: Oakland University: Profile  Northern Michigan University: Profile  Albion College: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphFinlandia University: Profile  Spring Arbor University: Profile  Eastern Michigan University: Profile  University of Michigan - Ann Arbor: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphAlma College: Profile  Ferris State University: Profile  Central Michigan University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphGrand Valley State University: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT GraphAlbion College: Profile | GPA-SAT-ACT Graph

Microbial physiology and culture (Practical Oxygen Transfer in a Essay

Microbial physiology and culture (Practical Oxygen Transfer in a Stirred Tank Reactor) - Essay Example In this experiment, this method is used in the determination of KLa. This process is important since it is applied in many fermentation processes which undergo aerobic reactions. This allows meeting the necessary metabolic demands of aerobic microorganisms. In this process, air is passed through a reactor at a constant flow rate at given speed in revolutions per minute. From the data, CL and time, it’s able to calculate KLa using the formula. Drawing a graph of  against time produces a straight line whose gradient is KLa (Karimi, 2013). Question 1 RPM = 200 From the graph, Thus M=0.0594 KLa=3.564 RPM at 400 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m=0.0146 Thus, KLa = 0.0146*60 = 0.876 h-1 RPM at 600 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m=0.0343 Thus, KLa = 0.0343*60 = 2.058 h-1 RPM at 800 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m=0.0344 Thus, KLa = 0.0344*60 = 2.064h-1 Second practical Flow rate 0.5 Rpm 500 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m=0.0114 Thus, KLa = 0.0114*60 = 0.684h-1 Flow rate 1.50 Rpm 500 Start air concentration 5.7 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m= Thus, KLa = *60 = 2.07h-1 Flow rate 2.0 Rpm 500 Start air concentration 5.7 From the graph, Thus Therefore the slope, m= 0.0594 Thus, KLa = 0.0594*60 = 3.564h-1 Question 2 KLa F N Log KLa Log N 3.564 1 200 0.551938 2.30103 2.058 1 600 0.313445 2.778151 2.064 1 800 0.31471 2.90309 Since Log KLa= y log N + constant From the graph, The equation y=-0.4234X + 1.5199 Therefore the constant y=0.4234 KLa F N Log KLa Log F 0.684 0.5 500 -0.16494 -0.30103 2.07 1 500 0.31597 0 3.564 1.5 500 0.551938 0.176091 Since Log KLa= X log F + constant From the graph, The equation y=-1.5127X + 0.2973 Therefore the constant x=1.5127 Question 3 Factors affecting KLa in STR: 1. Culture Conditions 2. Operation of the fermenter 3. Impeller Design Question 4 Increase in the values of the above stated factors reduces the time for the dissolved oxygen concentration. Question 5 Why KLa ra ther than KL It is extremely impossible to measure KL alone. Therefore, to make KL measurable it has to be combined with a to form KLa (Volumetric mass – transfer coefficient) which is easier to determine Question 6 Polarographic oxygen electrode measure Polarographic system is used to measure dissolved oxygen. In this system, the measurement device known as a transducer is the Clark oxygen electrode. An oxygen monitor is the processing (coupling Device) and the recording device is a computer aided data system. Question 7 Importance of KLa KLa is important since it facilitates establishment of efficiency and also it helps in quantifying effects of operating variables that has to be applied on the provision of oxygen. Question 8 Techniques of determining KLa Sulfite oxidation technique In this process, the Oxygen transfer rate is determined by the oxidation of sulfite solution. Gassing-out techniques In this process, the estimation of KLa is done by monitoring the increase of dissolved oxygen in during the process of aeration and agitation. Question 9 From the graphing and the trend of the graph, it can be determined that as the agitation speed increases, the time taken for the dissolved oxygen to reach dissolved oxygen concentration is shortened. Bibliography Karimi, A., 2013. Oxygen mass transfer in a stirred tank bioreactor using different

Face Negotiation Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Face Negotiation Theory - Essay Example To begin with, the research will administer a number of questionnaires to several participants in various different national cultures asking them to give a description of interpersonal conflict. After administering the questionnaires, the major findings of the this study came as follows; cultural individualism collectivism revealed direct and indirect effects on conflict styles, self-face and other-face related positively with independent self construal. Additionally, self-face related positively with conflict styles that are dominant and other-face related positively with integrating and avoiding styles, and finally, face accounted for all of the total variance explained (Littlejohn and Foss 172). However, it is worth noting that, face dominated and avoided some of the variances explained when considering face concerns, cultural individualism- collectivism, and self-construal. According to Stella, conflict earns the meaning, a perceived and actual incompatibility of values, processes, expectations, and outcomes between two or more parties over relational or substantive matters. In this research, a number of investigations make maximum use of the face negotiation theory. With reference to face negotiation theory, the author argues that face is an explanatory mechanism for management different styles of conflict within different cultural groups. Face is a representation of a claimed sense of a positive image of an individual in the context of social interaction. The general tendencies of patterned responses to conflict in a variety of antagonistic interactive situations refer to styles of managing conflicts. Face negotiation theory has strength whereby, it provides an explanatory and organized framework for behavior conflicts (Littlejohn and Foss 175). Nevertheless, the underlying assumption that face is an explanatory mechanism for conflict behavior has no previous tests. Prior investigations did not measure face directly but rather used face post hoc in explaining the relationship between conflicts and variables of culture. Hence, this research sought to incorporate testing the assumption that face is the explanatory mechanism for the relationship between culture and conflict management style as well. Research findings shows that, face negotiation theory provides a decisive framework of explanation for describing differences and similarities in face and face work during times of conflict. Concisely, the face negotiation theory argues that, in all cultures, people try to maintain and negotiate face in all communication situations. In addition, the concept of face becomes problematic especially in situations where there is uncertainty such as conflict or embarrassment circumstances (Littlejohn and Foss 191). This happens when situated identities of communication respond to questioning. Individual level variables, variability of culture , as well as variables of situation influence

Exploring the opportunities and challenges of developing Islamic Literature review

Exploring the opportunities and challenges of developing Islamic Financial Services in Seychelles - Literature review Example In the religion of Islam, it is strongly believed that Allah alone is Sovereign and it is He who has the right to ordain a guidance path for the whole humanity. In the Holy Quran, the word â€Å"Shariah† is mentioned once: â€Å" Then, We have set you[Muhammad] on a path (Shari’a) of [Our] commandment, so follow it, and do not follow the whims of those who do not know† (Holy Quran 45:18). This verse of Holy Quran clearly stipulates that Allah has ordered to the Last Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) that He himself has provided some of the basic Sharia rules and regulations in the shape of the Holy Quran and You [Muhammad (PBUH)] has been ordered to follow them. In the last part of this verse, it is also ordered that whims or wishes of others are totally disallowed to be followed instead of the orders of Allah. In the Shariah, it is clearly mentioned and established fact that Allah is the Law Giver and the whole Ummah is merely His Trustee (Kettell, 2011, p.13). More clear ly, every Muslim is under a moral obligation to read, understand and act upon the Islamic rules and regulations mainly enshrined in the Holy Quran. ... s scholar, can develop an independent judgement; not even all the Muslims of the world collectively have any authority to introduce even the slightest change to it. The scope of Shariah is not limited to a single aspect of Muslim life. The Shariah is the guide for human actions which includes every dimension of human life. As a result, it attaches, sanctifies and gives religious importance and religious aspect to activities that may look mundane. Also, it encompasses constitutional and regulatory rules and regulations. Muslims individually and collectively are ordered to conduct their daily economic, social, personal, political, religious and other activities in accordance with the Shariah rules and regulations provided in the Holy Quran, the Sunnah and other sources of Shariah. The sources of shariah Kelly (2008) mentions the following sources of Shariah in the religion of Islam (p.109): The Quran; The Sunnah; The Ijtihad; The Ijma; The Qiyas. The Quran Naqvi (2012, p.23) states tha t Muslims believe that the Holy Quran is the final word from Allah. The Holy Quran is the main source of Shariah. In this main source, Allah has provided numerous orders, rules and regulations relating to different aspect of human life. In order to religiously conduct daily human activities, the Holy Quran provides guidance relating to the essential human activities. Broadly speaking, the Holy Quran provides guidance on two aspects of human life: relationship between humans and the relationship between humans and Allah. Between these two aspects, the majority of the guidance has focused on the relationship between humans. As humans are required to interact for various reasons including political, social, economic, and personal and so on, Allah has included maximum guidance on these issues

Stresses for Trainee Counselling Psychologists | Review

Stresses for Trainee Counselling Psychologists | Review Title: A critical commentary on the following research paper: Kumary, A Martyn, B. (2008) Stresses reported by UK trainee counselling psychologists. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, March; 21:19-28 The prospect of entering any postgraduate training program can often be intimidating. Not only due to the academic commitment required, but because of the emotional demands and potential financial stranglehold placed on a student. These issues alone can leave trainees in both counselling and related psychological professions vulnerable to stress, which can not only damage the well-being of the student, but lower the overall quality of care experienced by patients when trainees are on placement (Cushway Tyler 1996; Kumary Baker 2008). Kumary Martyns make the simple argument, based loosely around Crushways (1992) study of UK clinical psychology trainees, that there are key aspects of training that impact on self-reported stress levels. These included poor supervision, financial costs, childcare, personal therapy and extra supervision. Some of these stressors identified cannot be thought of as essential or necessary aspects of training but this in itself is an area of key debate. (Kumary et al 2008). Other research has also highlighted the same key issues within counselling (Szymanska 2002), but has only looked at one issue in isolation and with this in mind, the present study was an investigation of UK counselling psychology trainees self-reports of their experiences of stress when training. One might go as far to question the rational of any study examining potential stress within such professions considering that having gone through an undergraduate degree already, students are already accustomed to a moderate l evel of stress and it simply goes with the territory (Cooper Quick 2003). On the other hand, such a study has never been conducted and may produce compelling results. Subjects were easy to identify and obtain although only UK counselling trainees who were studying for Part 1 of the BPS diploma were recruited. Are we to assume that this is when stress levels are at an optimal level? Questionnaires were sent out to all institutions. While the general characteristics of the sample are well represented, there was only a 41% return rate. This is good, but not outstanding in comparison to research conducted in similar domains, despite numerous follow-up e-mails and telephone calls (Robertson Sundstorm 1990). A financial incentive might have improved this return rate, but pre-paid return envelops were provided. However this data was collected in 2003, but not submitted for publication until 2007. Ethically, this delay in analysis and publication produces results that are already four years out of date in an education system that is constantly evolving (Hadley et al 1995). While such a simple methodology may initially seem sound, on closer inspection, the differences between the training programs of clinical and counselling are only glossed over and there is some evidence to suggest that the disparity between the two hinder a repetition of a seemingly straightforward approach last consulted in 1992 by Cushway. Aside from the time lapse, it is therefore important to consider the other issues surrounding the modification of a methodology previously used to investigate stress in clinical trainees. Firstly, counselling psychologist training tends to be less scientifically orientated than its clinical counterpart and most NHS posts are only open to Clinical Psychologists (Mayne, Norcross Sayette 2000). For example, it is generally accepted that counselling psychologists focus more on the therapeutic alliance with clients having to complete 450 hours of contact by the end of 3rd year training (Hadley et al 1995). While there are considerable similarities between the two disciplines, Norcorss (2000) documents many salient differences including professional activities, theoretical orientations, employment and training settings, graduate admissions and research areas. The question what are the differences in training clinical and counselling psychologists? -does not lend itself to an easy answer because psychology can be applied in so many ways. Traditionally, the main difference is in their training and perspective (Mayne et al 2000). It would appear to be an oversight on Kumary et als (2008) part to use a similar, modified methodology, previously applied to clinical trainees when the stress causing factors may be quite different. With these differences outlined in more detail, the old methodology would appear to require a more radical modification or adaptation from that used previously. Two main instruments were used to examine stress within the sample. The Counselling Psychology Trainee Stress Survey (CPTSS) and The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12) (Wemeke, Goldberg Yalcin 2000). The CPTSS was developed from Cushways (1992) stress survey for clinical psychology trainees with four categories (academic stressors, placement stressors, organizational stressors and personal stressors). What is concerning is the lack of both research confirming the validity of the measure and the small brainstorm session using five trainees under those headings. Furthermore, from their discussion the CPTSS, constructed from 36 items, was only piloted on a further six trainees. This did lead to some changes being made with the authors settling on four descriptive categories slightly different from Cushways; academic demands, lack of support systems, placement stressors and personal and professional development. This displays neither convergent or discriminant validity. Finally, despi te other more valid forms of questionnaires available measuring stress (for example the Psychological Stress Measure (PMS), this study chose one which was quickly devised from a brief investigation and remains untested in the general population (Lemyre Tessier 2003; Trovato et al 2006). The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12) on the other hand has been specifically validated for use in non-psychotic populations (Wemeke et al 2000). Because it is a shortened, 12-item version of the GHQ, it allows for quick completion, is likely to increase participant response, is quick to code and statistical mistakes also become less likely. For the purposes of this study, it appears to be the ideal choice and has been used to great effect in a large body of pervious work (Winefield, Goldney, Winefield, Tiggemann 1989; Vaglum Falkum 1999; Quek, Low, Razack, Loh 2001). A recent review by Jackson (2007) however, pointed out that the 28 item is usually used because the GHQ28 has been more widely used in other working populations, which allows for better comparisons, but the reliability coefficients have ranged from 0.78 to 0.95 in numerous studies and Jackson concludes (2007, p. 57) that: ‘In using this tool with postgraduate students conducting research in many areas of occupational health, the GHQ rarely fails to provide reliable and effective measures of well-being that usually correlate very highly with other measures of working environments or organizations Regardless of how carefully survey data is collected and analyzed, the value of the final result depends on the truthfulness of the respondents answers to the questions asked. Over the last twenty years, researchers have debated extensively about the truthfulness of peoples self-reports, and no clear cut conclusion has emerged (Zechmeister, Zechmesiter, Shaughnessy 2001). If someone is asked whether or not they enjoyed their bath, there is generally no need to question whether this accurately reflects their real feelings. However, in everyday life there are some situations in which researchers should have reason to be suspect. Survey research involves reactive measurement because respondents know that their responses are being recorded. Pressures may be strong for people to respond as they think they should rather than what they actually feel or believe (Zechmeister et al 2001). The term used to describe theses pressures is social desirability and in Kumary Martyns study (2008) the se issues are present in their entirety (Zechmeister et al 2001). For example, a trainee counselling psychologists attitudes towards their own stress and health levels, may be a far cry from their actual stressful behavioural responses. Both the questioners administered rely solely on self report and this gives rise to some further criticism. The approach is straightforward, but there is a trade-off between allowing for a simple analysis and the complex use of questionnaires in any survey based study. It is a fine balance that is difficult to maintain. Self-report questionnaires are all answered at different times and in different locations by each subject. As a result, the measures are vulnerable to inaccuracies caused by confounding variables. For example, a trainee filling in a stress based measure might have just had a particularly stressful day or experience that will effect their score. They could even have exams in a few weeks. Alternatively, reporting the issue of time-management and stress may be meaningless when the respondent evidently has time to sit down and take part in such a study anyway. The results from any self report also lack directness. While there is no ideal direct measure of stress, it is possible to get a better indication by measuring some of the physiological effects in the body. For example, stress might be better measured via heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, brain waves, muscle tension, skin conductance or temperature (Lemyre et al 2003). While more costly, such a study could be replicated using skin conductance monitors, worn by trainee counselling psychologists and correlate daily activities with any changes. This might produce results documenting what aspects of the course give rise to more stress and allow for re-development and changes to be applied where necessary. A more elementary approach might be to use an electronic pager device which asks every hour, how stressed are you now and what are your currently doing? In summary, researchers and clinicians must be careful when adapting clinical tools and methodologies to assess stress. They were designed for pathological disorders and validated using clinical populations and so the statistical distributions are not normal (Trovato et al 2006). As Lemyre et al (2003, p. 1159) state: The concept of stress refers to a set of affective, cognitive, somatic and behavioral manifestations within the range of functional integrity Despite this, thirteen items from the CPTSS were identified as being the most stressful issues in the sample population (none came from lack of support), which were split into two groups. The first included practical issues of finding time, funds and suitable placements. One item was also linked with negotiating these three key areas and could have a subsequent impact on their social life. A second group comprised of more general postgraduate issues: academic pressure and professional socialization. In order to determine a basis for the four groupings within the 37 single items of the CPTSS they were employed as four sub-scales (academic, placement, PPD and lack of support). These also gave acceptable levels of reliability. (Kumary et al 2008). The authors also found some good evidence for demographic variants in stress, with significantly higher stress ratings reported by younger participants and lower for those who were older. The GHQ12 results were in two scoring forms casesness and extend of distress with 54 participants identified as cases had significantly higher CPTSS scores than the 39 non-cases. Key findings from Kumary et al (2008, p. 24) included: The higher the stress rated for an aspect of counselling psychology training, the clearer the indicators of psychiatric distress became older participants had lower CPTSS ratings especially on placement issues men reported lower CPTSS ratings, most notably on academic items The support items attracted less attribution in comparison to academic, placement and PPD issues, despite pilot discussions (Kumary et al 2008), suggesting again that the methodology behind this study was flawed from the start. This does to some extent mirror Cushways (1992) data in that support was viewed by participants as a resource to ease training-induced stress, and participants viewed it as a resource to be used rather than a cause of stress because it was insufficiently provided. Again, with this knowledge available at the outset, why was the same methodology used? At this point, one might mention the issue of correlation and how this does not imply causation, but no profile of a stressed student was possible because most of the results were not significant. The authors admit themselves that the data collected is nothing to be proud of (2008, p. 25). It is difficult to believe that Krumary et al (2008) did not clearly see the unsophisticated and non-standardized status of the CPTSS as a serious issue before conducting such a study particularly when compared with more experimental research methods (Lemyre et al 2003). It is possible that the measures used were not sensitive enough to pick up on individual stress differences between participants. The fact remains however, that the fundamental assumptions were wrong and the question remains, do trainees in professions such as clinical and counselling psychology experience more stress than those within the normal population and if so are such emotional demands a critical part of training? Should t rainees be exposed to unacceptable stress levels and their apparent resilience used as an assessment criterion of professional suitability? (Hadley Mitchell 1995) The basis of this study is not sound enough to warrant any overall generalizations within the target population. The approach was oversimplified at the expense of generalized, poor-quality results. In this sense, the study has contributed little to our knowledge into how trainee counselling psychologists experience stress. The lack of an original approach is a reminder of how academic journals vary in the quality of the research they publish. It is nevertheless important that it was published to illustrate a methodology that clearly failed and thus prevents further repetition. This is the constant winding road of modern applied psychological research. References Cooper, L. C., Quick, C. J. (2003). The stress and loneliness of success. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 16, 1-7 Cushway, D. (1992). Stress in clinical psychology trainees. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 169-179 Cushway, D., Tyler, P. (1996). Stress in clinical psychologists. British Journal of Clinical Psychologists, 31, 169-179 Goldberg DP, et al. (1978) Manual of the General Health Questionnaire (NFER Publishing, Windsor, England). Hadley Mitchell (1995). Counselling Research and Program Evaluation. London: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company Jackson, C. (2007). The General Health Questionnaire. Occupational Medicine, 57, 79 Kumary, A Martyn, B. (2008). Stresses reported by UK trainee counselling psychologists. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 21,19-28 Lemyre, L., Tessier, R. (2003). Measuring psychological stress concept, model and measurement instrument in primary care research. Canadian Family Physician, 49, 1159-1160 Mayne, T. J., Norcross, J. C., Sayette, M. A. (2000). Insiders guide to graduate programs in clinical and counseling psychology (2000-2001 ed). New York: Guilford. Norcross C. J. (2000) Clinical Versus Counselling Psychology: Whats the Diff? Eye on Psi Chi, 5 (1), 20-22 Quek, F. K, Low, Y. W., Razack, H. A., Loh, S. C. (2001). Reliability and validity of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) among urological patents: A Malaysian study. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 55 (5), 509-513 Robertson, M. T., Sundstrom, E. (1990). Questionnaire design, return rates, and response favorableness in an employee attitude questionnaire. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75 (3), 354-357 Szymanska, K. (2002). Trainee expectations in counselling psychology as compared to the reality of the training experience. Counselling Psychology Review, 17, 22-27 Trovato, M. G., Catalano, D., Martines, G. F., Spadaro, D., DI Corrado, D., Crispi, V., Garufi, G., Nuovo, S. (2006). Psychological stress measure in type 2 diabetes. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 10, 69-74 Vaglum, P., Falkum, E. (1999). Self-criticism, dependency and depressive symptoms in a nationwide sample of Norwegian physicians. Journal of Affective Disorders, 52 (1-3), 153-159 Wemeke, U., Goldberg, D., Yalcin, I. (2000). The stability of the factor structure of the General Health Questionaire. Psychological Medicine, 30, 823-829 Winefield, R. H., Goldney, D. R., Winefield, H. A., Tiggemann, M. (1989) The General Health Questionnaire: Reliability and Validity For Australian Youth. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 23 (1), 53-58 Zechmeister, S. J., Zechmesiter, B. E., Shaughnessy, J. J. (2001). Essentials of Research Methods in Psychology, McGraw-Hill Higher Education Schizophrenia: the biological and psychological effect Schizophrenia: the biological and psychological effect The study of psychosis has been much published within the literature. Investigations into the biological, psychological and clinical aspects of the disorder have been greatly seen. An approach which views schizophrenia as a disturbance of information processing appears promising as a way of linking all of the aspects of the disorder. A review of the research in this area led to the suggestion that the basic disturbance in schizophrenia is a weakening of the influences of stored memories of regularities of previous input on current perception. It is argued that the link between information processing disturbances and biological abnormalities may be facilitated by the use of paradigms derived from animal learning theory (latent inhibition and Kamins blocking effect). In a number of animal model studies and indeed human subject studies, on an individuals pattern of performance in acute schizophrenics, the information gained is consistent with the cognitive model. The ways in which such an information-processing disturbance may lead to schizophrenic symptomatology will thus be outlined, with particular reference to the formation and maintenance of delusional beliefs. The core cognitive abnormality may result from a disturbance in any of the brain structures involved in the prediction of subsequent sensory input. The proposed circuit implicates in particular the hippocampus and related areas and is consistent with studies of brain pathology in schizophrenia. Thus, this paper will aim to provide an insight into the biological and psychological effects of schizophrenia and will give an insight into the current treatments available and their effects on the individual and their biological status. Introduction Understanding the varied presentation of the many types of psychotic disorders is still a major challenge within todays scientific capacity. The approaches utilized to clarify their complex nature of such disorders of the neurological system present an ongoing challenge, due to the complexity of the interaction between both biological entities (the brain) and the psychological effects. Thus, the aim of this paper is to review the evolution of our understanding of schizophrenia in terms of the biological and psychological effects of the disorder, based upon a review of the literature findings. Studies, which have been conducted regarding the life-long evolution of mental illnesses, especially schizophrenia, have been publicized for decades and this has managed to initiate the early standing of schizophrenia and of the nature of its chronic states. These experiences have further contributed to the views we hold today regarding the illness, leading in a third phase to the development of a biological-psychosocial model of its evolution which has proved useful for both theoretical and practical purposes. Finally, an understanding of therapeutic experiences and theoretical explorations based on the biological and psychological has helped to minimize the effects of the disease within the patient population. Biological basis of schizophrenia Across the findings within the literature, the question of whether schizophrenia is associated with structural or functional abnormalities of the nervous system, or both, appears to have become the principal focus in many of the biological studies of schizophrenia. A number of different methods of investigation of this system have been conducted including computed tomography studies, which have been able to reveal ventricular enlargement and cortical atrophy in a subgroup of schizophrenic patients. When such enlargement is found within the brain of the majority of patients in the early stages of the illness, they appear to be most severe in patients with negative symptoms and poor outcome. Quantitative neuropathological studies have tentatively demonstrated decreased volume of specific brain areas, neuronal loss, and other changes in the limbic system, basal ganglia, and frontal cortex. Dopamine (DA) remains the neurotransmitter most likely to be involved in schizophrenia, although t here is also evidence for disturbances of serotonin and norepinephrine. Post-mortem and positron emission tomographic studies suggest an increased number of D2 DA receptors in some schizophrenics. Neuroendocrine studies reinforce the role of DA in schizophrenics. Viral infections and autoimmune disturbances may be responsible for some types of schizophrenia, but there is no firm experimental evidence to support either hypothesis. The possibility that mixtures of structural abnormalities and functional changes involving DA occur in the same patients rather than independently as part of two syndromes (Type I, II) seems attractive. The symptoms of schizophrenia patients appear to be diverse, with different elements of the disease having different impacts on different individuals. Since Bleulers (1950) conception of the schizophrenias as a heterogenous disease composed of symptomaticlly different subgroups, attempts have been made to identify biological correlates of specific behavioral dysfunction. Diagnosis of the illness could be seen to have been fraught with difficulties. The initial lack of differentiation between the manic episodes of bipolar affective disorder and schizophrenia still presents as being greatly problematic within studies published within the literature, and subsequent attempts to differentiate between subgroups of schizophrenics have yielded no discrete classification system. The search for an etiology has also been bedeviled by this lack of distinct classification. Nevertheless, the publication of and the conduction of a number of biological theories have contributed to an understanding o f schizophrenia by identifying specific dysfunctional neural areas in determining biochemical changes associated with symptomatology and in formulating new etiological hypotheses. Neurological correlation between neurological studies and the effects of schizophrenia have been examined by research conducted through the use of magnetic resonance imaging, computed and positron emission tomography, and, also postmortem morphological changes (Koning et al, 2010). Studies of cognitive function in association with metabolic and cerebrovascular activity have contributed to the identification of discrete neural dysfunction. In addition, development of the dopamine theory and its relationship to positive symptoms has assisted in diagnostic differentiation, while recent studies on the modulatory role of neuropeptides on neurotransmitters have expanded the scope of the dopamine theory. Several biological theories have been proposed for an etiology of schizophrenia. (Krabbendam et al, 2004) Perinatal complications and viral infection have been suggested either in isolation or in conjunction with genetic factors. Low birth weight has also been proposed as a predisposing or associated factor in the subsequent development of schizophrenia. The viral hypothesis has received impetus from recent research into retroviruses capable of genetic transmission and causing latent disease onset. It is also recognized that factors other than biological, in particular, Psychosocial influences may play an etiological role in schizophrenia. Discussion of these factors, however, will not be discussed in great detail in this paper due to time restrictions. The difficulty of diagnosis As etiological studies rely to a large extent on accurate diagnosis, it is important initially to identify diagnostic problems because this aids an understanding between the interplay between biological and psychological effects, which can be noted in schizophrenics. It has long been recognized that the term schizophrenia incorporates a heterogeneous collection of subgroups, possibly with different etiologies, disease processes, and outcomes. The subsequent categorization of such patients into meaningful groups therefore relies upon differences in symptomatology and long term outcome, and fall broadly into three categories- paranoid versus nonparanoid, negative versus positive, and chronic versus acute (Goldstein Tsuang, 1988) The literature proposes that paranoid groups show a better premorbid adjustment, cognitive performance, and prognosis than the nonparanoid group (Kumra and Schulz, 2008), it has been suggested that this represents a measurement artifact and depends on whether absolute or relative measures of paranoia are used. Studies using absolute predominance measures to the exclusion of other symptoms reject many subjects displaying both sets of symptoms. Many nonpredominance studies show no differences between the groups of an increase in negative outcome as paranoid symptoms increase. Other researchers have proposed that schizophrenics could be categorized into two types placed into their category upon the basis of positive or negative symptom preponderence. Type I, or the positive symptom group, display some of the Schneiderian first rank symptoms of hallucinations and delusions, while Type 2, or the negative symptom group, show affective loss or extinction, speech content poverty, psychomotor deficits, and a general loss of drive or will. One of the problems with this categorization is that many schizophrenics display both sets of symptoms and that schizophrenics with primary positive symptoms often develop negative symptoms over time (Phillips and Silverstein, 2003). This would mean that studies using young subjects showing predominantly Positive symptoms may not be adequately differentiating between groups. Recent refinements of the positive/negative dichotomy have led to a redefinition of negative symptoms congruent with familial genetic factors, developmental dys- function, and the development of psychometric scales to measure relative symptomatology (Pickett-Schnenk et al, 2006). However, the influence of neuroleptic drugs on attentional and extrapyramidal functioning could also contribute to the development of differential symptoms. Furthermore, the effects of early environmental factors, such as perinatal trauma and familial environment, and of concurrent disorders, such as depression, are not adequately taken into account in such studies. Thus, this highlights the difficulties, which can be seen when trying to relate the biological and psychological effects of schizophrenia to a certain pathological aspect of brain development. Within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R; APA, 1987) chronicity is defined as persistence of disturbance for more than two years with further residual diagnosis if subsequent symptoms are primarily negative. It is assumed to be associated with negative symptoms within Crows typography (Crow, 1980). This classification is the most common in the literature because of its basis in psychiatric diagnosis and its relationship to poor prognosis and to biological and cognitive deficits. For the purpose of biological research, the argument appears to be somewhat circular however because, for example, research attempts to find biological correlates of subgroups that are often operationally defined by their biological correlates. Moreover, there is significant overlap between the two groups in that many initially acute schizophrenics subsequently become chronic (by definition). While researchers across the literature publications acknowledge the heterogeneity of the disease, they continue to rely operationally on a dichotomous diagnosis. Multiple research strategies on the same subgroup would assist in isolating behavioural and biological attributions and in refining diagnostic criteria. Biochemical research and the impact on our understanding of the effects of schizophrenia Disruptions of neural biochemical processes have been extrapolated both from the effects of psychomimetic drugs and from the actions of symptom-reducing neuroleptic drugs. Drugs such as amphetamine and L-dopa, which cause psychotic conditions (e.g., hallucinations and paranoia), are known to involve excesses of dopamine release (Goodwin, 1972). Although different classes of neuroleptics are known to block acetylcholine, noradrenaline, or serotinin transmission, all of them block dopamine, and symptom reduction is thought to emanate from the latter (Millar et al, 2001). Within the dopamine theory two models of dysfunction have been proposed: autoreceptor excess, and postsynaptic receptor mechanism deficit. Different classes of neuroleptics vary in whether action is pre- or postsynaptic, but an inhibition of dopamine transmission is effected by all classes. Two classes of dopamine receptors have been identified-D1 and DP as previously mentioned, and it is believed that they are related to schizophrenia and neuroleptic effects. Distinctions between the two are based upon their actions on adenylate cyclase: stimulatory for Dl and distinct or inhibitory for D2 (Murray et al, 2008). Dl neurons, which project from the substantia nigra to the corpus striatum, are implicated in Parkinsons disease. Inhibition of Dl receptors is believed to be the origin of neuroleptic side effects, such as tardive dyskinesia and parkinsonianism. D2 receptors are associated with the antipsychotic effects of neuroleptic drugs and form the mesolimbic dopamine system which projects to the frontal cortex and some limbic forebrain structures (Tseng et al, 2008). The proposition that schizophrenic symptoms are caused by an excess of D2 receptors was initially difficult to substantiate due to drug effects and disease process. In most postmortem studies showing higher densities of dopamine receptors, previous antipsychotic drug use is also implicated (Seeman, 1986). However, in several studies subjects had never been treated with neuroleptics and still evinced increased dopamine receptor density (Trower et al, 2004). The role of dopamine receptor anomalies has also been studied using differential effects of classes of neuroleptics on dopamine receptors. In vivo Positron Emission Tomography (PET) research using the ligand [Cl raclopride has indicated that diverse classes of neuroleptic drugs administered in clinically effective doses block D2 dopamine receptors in the putamen. suggesting increased D2 dopamine density in schizophrenic subjects (Thompson et al, 2001). Research on the role of the atypical neuroleptic, clozapine, on dopamine receptors has however yielded inconsistent results. It is thought that the relative absence of extrapyramidal side effects with clozapine administration is due to a selective effect on D2 dopamine activity in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens but not in the substantia nigra or striatum. Haloperidol, on the other hand, reduces dopamine activity in both areas. The effects of both drug classes have been observed in rats using in vivo extracellular sing le-unit recordings (Tseng et al, 2009). However, clozapine also acts antagonistically on cholinergic, a-adrenergic, his- tamine, and serotonin receptors and, in addition, the combination of haloperidol with the a-noradrenergic antagonist, prazosin, produces similar effects to clozapine administration, namely, reduced basal dopamine release in the striatum but not in the nucleus accumbens (Thimm et al, 2010). Studies on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of prolactin following clozapine administration have also yielded inconsistent reslults. Prolactin release is inhibited by dopamine and increased by conventional neuroleptics. However, in at least one study it has been found that administration of clozapine to human schizophrenic subjects produced no significant increase in prolactin levels 11 hours after administration, despite moderate to marked therapeutic effects (Meltzer, Goode, Schyve, Young, Fang, 1979). Several recent studies have also implicated Dl receptor blocks in the therapeutic effects of clozapine. A further obstacle to the initial acceptance of the dopamine theory has been the time discrepancy between drug administration and antipsychotic symptomatic effects. PET studies have shown immediate binding to dopamine receptor sites, yet their clinical effect is often delayed for several weeks (Tarrier et al, 1999). There have been suggestions that receptors blocks produce an initial overactivity of dopamine release to compensate for inhibition. Further evidence for the dopamine theory has come from measurements of CSF, and plasma levels of the dopamine metabolite, homovanillic acid (HVA). Although findings in unmedicated patients have not yielded consistent differences in HVA levels between schizophrenics and controls, neuroleptic treatment increases HVA levels (Abubaker et al, 2008). In unmedicated patients, a correlation between low HVA levels and cortical atrophy and ventricular enlargement has been found in at least one study. This has led to the suggestion that dopamine excess is related to Type 1 schizophrenia, an interpretation which is supported by a good response to neuroleptic drugs in this group (Crow, 1985). In addition, Allen et al (2008) has suggested a possible deficiency of dopamine in Type 2 schizophrenics. However, the Type l-Type 2 typography has not been fully supported, and there is evidence that neuroleptic drugs elicit response in negative symptom sufferers (Allen et al, 2008). From the evidence there is little doubt of the biological role of dopamine within some forms of schizophrenia. The influence of serotonin in schizophrenia was suggested by the antagonistic activity of the psychomimetic drug, D-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), on serotonin transmission (Addinton and Addington, 1993). This has been studied in CSF by measuring levels of the serotonin precuresor, tryptophan, and the metabolite 5- hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA). At least one study has found reduced levels of 5-HIAA in schizophrenics and no difference between those on and off neuroleptics, but the latter group had only been drug free for a short time (three weeks). Therefore residual effects cannot be discounted. It was not stated whether subjects were also suffering from depression, which is known to decrease serotonin levels (Akbarian and Huang, 2009). Neither increasing nor decreasing serotonin levels have had a beneficial effect on schizophrenic symptoms (Akbarian and Huang, 2009). Monoamine oxidase (MAO) metabolizes dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline, as well as endogenous stimulants or hallucinogens such as phenylethylamine and diethltryptamine. It has therefore been hypothesized that decreased MAO activity could be contributory to schizophrenia. Studies have been conducted into platelet MAO activity in schizophrenics with varying results. Meltzer and Arora (1980) found that decreased MAO platelet activity was positively correlated with paraniod and positive symptoms. Other studies have found no un- usual MAO platelet activity in paranoid or hallucinating schizophrenics (Arts et al, 2008) Recent research has also considered the role of neuro-peptides in modulating CNS functions and the possible implications for schizophrenic symptomatology. Endorphins have been the subject of the most intensive study because of their association to proposed neural deficit areas both in biochemical and neuropathlogical research. The B, y, and (Y endorphins originate in the basal hypothalamus and modulate neurotransmitter activity in several structures of the limbic system and brain stem. Of all the biochemical theories of schizophrenia, the dopamine hypothesis has been the most consistently substantiated in research. The implication of other neurotransmitters, however, suggests a possible diffuse dysfunction with dopamine eliciting the most severe disruption. Efforts have been made to control for medication, but residual drug effects cannot be discounted. Many studies now use chlorpromazine equivalents to control for the effects of varying medication levels. The problem with this method is that, although different classes of neuroleptics all reduce dopamine levels either pre- or postsynaptically, they do not have equivalent effects on serotonin, MAO, or noradrenalin. Further problems are encountered when attempts are made to ascribe an etiological function to neurotransmitter activity. It is equally probable that any such changes are caused by the disease process rather than their being causal. Structual brain abnormalities The neuropathology of schizophrenia has received considerable recent interest in the light of positron emmission tomography (PET), postmortem, cognitive function and cerebral blood flow (CBF) research. While PET scans and postmortem investigation have concentrated on structural measurements, cognitive studies have provided tacit support for such structural changes. It has been hypothosized that neuropathological abnormalities identified in subgroups of schizophrenics could be in vitro developmental disorders either genetically transmitted or resulting from prenatal trauma (Ashburner et al, 2008). The most consistent findings across the publications within the literature have been differences in ventricular size, in some sections of the temporal limbic and nigrostriatal systems and basal ganglia, and in the prefrontal cortex. Measurements of ventricular size have however, shown considerable inconsistency, with some studies finding no significant difference between subjects and non-schizophrenic controls (Bles et al, 2010), and some reporting significant differences between chronic paranoid and hebephrenic subjects and normal controls (Bales et al, 2010). Evidence to date suggests that ventricular enlargement is only salient for a small subgroup of schizophrenics subject to chronicity or other, as yet unidentified, factors. Inconsistency in the results could be due to deviations in subject samples. It has been proposed that atrophy of specific neural areas could account for some schizophrenic symptoms. While some evidence has come directly from postmortem studies. Abnormalities have also been inferred from the results of PET and CAT scans and CBF measurements performed in conjunction with cognitive tasks designed to activate specific neural areas. Postmortem studies have identified significant cortical atrophy in the lateral nigro-striatal area (Birchwood et al, 2004) and in the limbic portions of the temporal lobe, specifically the amygdala, hippocampus, and parahippocampal gyrus (Birchwood et al, 2004). Psychotherapies and social treatments The psychological effects and impacts of schizophrenia must be emphasized. Due to the impact of the different, aforementioned parts of the brain and the CNS in schizophrenia, the psychological impact of the disease is obviously one, which takes great effect as previously mentioned. Psychotherapies are thought to be important within the current treatment lines in schizophrenia and although antipsychotic medications are the mainstay of treatment for schizophrenia, pharmacotherapy alone produces only limited improvement in negative symptoms, cognitive function, social functioning and quality of life. Additionally, it has been found that a great number of patients continue to suffer from persistent positive symptoms and relapses particularly when they fail to adhere to prescribed medications. This underlines the need for multi-modal care including psychosocial therapies as adjuncts to antipsychotic medications to help alleviate symptoms and to improve adherence, social functioning and qu ality of life (Patterson and Leeuwenkamp, 20008). A short review of the evidence that has accumulated on the efficacy of the major modalities of psychosocial treatment highlights that treatments involving social skills training, psychoeducation and cognitive behavioural therapies (CBTs) can all have a role in the treatment of individuals with schizophrenia. The reasoning behind the success of each treatment can give guidance into the psychological effects of the disease. For example, Psychoeducational interventions provide information about the disorder and its treatment to patients and their family members, and additionally inform the patients and family members about strategies to cope with schizophrenic illness. From the literature findings, it is evident that an extensive body of literature has accumulated regarding the efficacy of these interventions. Meta-analyses suggest that these interventions reduce high expressed emotion among relatives, and decrease relapse and rehospita lization rates (Pitschel et al, 2002; Giron et al, 2010). In general, interventions that include family members are found to have a much greater level of success (Pharaoh et al, 2006). Multi-family psychoeducation group approaches, which provide family psychoeducation and additionally offer an expanded social network, are found to reduce rates of relapse as are peer-to-peer education programs for families and patients (Chien et al, 2006). Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) About a third of patients with schizophrenia continue to suffer from persistent psychotic symptoms despite adequate pharmacotherapy. Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) has therefore been presented as a system of treatment which has emerged to address this need, and is based on the hypothesis that psychotic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations stem from misinterpretations and irrational attributions caused by self-monitoring deficits. CBT seeks to help patients rationally appraise their experience of disease symptoms and how they respond to them, thereby reducing symptoms and preventing relapse (Turkington et al, 2008). Meta-analytic evaluations of this data have found CBT to be effective in ameliorating positive symptoms (Rector and Beck, 2001) although effect sizes of CBT have been noted to be inconsistent across studies and a recent meta-analysis of six blinded studies (Lynch et al, 2010) found CBT to be ineffective in reducing any symptoms of schizophrenia or in preventing relapse; the fairness of this analysis has been questioned (Kingdon et al, 2010). CBT is reported to be ineffective in targeting negative symptoms and its effects on other treatment domains are not well studied. Although CBT is recommended as a standard of care for persons with schizophrenia (NICE, 2009) the results are thought to give the best outcomes in patients who are willing to comply with treatment. Cognitive remediation A substantive proportion of schizophrenia patients have impaired cognition, particularly in the domains of psychomotor speed, attention, working memory and executive function, verbal learning and social cognition. These deficits are robust and persist during the illness, and serve as rate limiting factors for functional recovery (Tandon et al, 2009). Several cognitive remediation approaches have been developed over the past two decades which involve compensation strategies to organize information, use of environmental aids such as reminders and prompts, and a range of techniques designed to enhance executive function and social cognition (Eack et al, 2010). Earlier reviews and meta-analyses which have been presented and published within the literature findings have suggested that cognitive remediation leads to modest improvements in performance on neuropsychological tests but has limited generalization to functional outcomes (Pilling et al, 2002) One large meta-analysis published by McGurk et al, (2007), however, found that cognitive remediation was associated with significant improvements in cognitive performance and symptoms, as well as psychosocial functioning in schizophrenia. Cognitive remediation has been found to be more effective in studies that provided adjunctive psychiatric rehabilitation in addition to cognitive remediation. Thus, it appears to be the case that the durability of benefits of cognitive remediation are not yet set in stone. Social skills training (SST) Schizophrenia patients manifest deficits in social competence and these contribute to poor outcome. The goal of SST is to improve day-to-day living skills by focusing on components of social competence such as self-care, basic conversation, vocational skills, and recreation. These skills are practiced mostly in group settings using techniques based on operant and social learning theory. Historically, token economy was the first such intervention that sought to improve the social behavior of patients with psychiatric illness. While effective, the results did not generalize beyond the therapeutic setting. A recent meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of social skills training in schizophrenia showed a large effect size for improvement in skills, a moderate effect size for performance-based social and community skills and for community functioning, and a small effect size for symptoms and relapse (Kurts and Mueser, 2008) Conclusions Thus, in conclusion, and in review of the findings published within the literature, it si clear that the impact of both biological aspects of the disease and psychological impacts are prevalent within the schizophrenic population. In summary, research on psychosocial approaches to treatment of schizophrenia has yielded incremental evidence of efficacy of CBT, SST, family psychoeducation, ACT and supported employment. Relatively few rigorously conducted trials of psychosocial interventions have been reported in the early course of schizophrenia, a phase of the illness when effective interventions may yield long-term outcome benefits . More hypothesis-driven research is needed to examine active ingredients of the therapeutic modalities that work, to identify the synergistic effects of combinations of interventions, and to use the knowledge which we have gained from the biological impact of the disease and the understandings of the neurological circuitry and its implications in schizoph renia to aid the development of new methods of reducing the effects of schizophrenia on the patient population.