Exploring the opportunities and challenges of developing Islamic Literature review

Exploring the opportunities and challenges of developing Islamic Financial Services in Seychelles - Literature review Example In the religion of Islam, it is strongly believed that Allah alone is Sovereign and it is He who has the right to ordain a guidance path for the whole humanity. In the Holy Quran, the word â€Å"Shariah† is mentioned once: â€Å" Then, We have set you[Muhammad] on a path (Shari’a) of [Our] commandment, so follow it, and do not follow the whims of those who do not know† (Holy Quran 45:18). This verse of Holy Quran clearly stipulates that Allah has ordered to the Last Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) that He himself has provided some of the basic Sharia rules and regulations in the shape of the Holy Quran and You [Muhammad (PBUH)] has been ordered to follow them. In the last part of this verse, it is also ordered that whims or wishes of others are totally disallowed to be followed instead of the orders of Allah. In the Shariah, it is clearly mentioned and established fact that Allah is the Law Giver and the whole Ummah is merely His Trustee (Kettell, 2011, p.13). More clear ly, every Muslim is under a moral obligation to read, understand and act upon the Islamic rules and regulations mainly enshrined in the Holy Quran. ... s scholar, can develop an independent judgement; not even all the Muslims of the world collectively have any authority to introduce even the slightest change to it. The scope of Shariah is not limited to a single aspect of Muslim life. The Shariah is the guide for human actions which includes every dimension of human life. As a result, it attaches, sanctifies and gives religious importance and religious aspect to activities that may look mundane. Also, it encompasses constitutional and regulatory rules and regulations. Muslims individually and collectively are ordered to conduct their daily economic, social, personal, political, religious and other activities in accordance with the Shariah rules and regulations provided in the Holy Quran, the Sunnah and other sources of Shariah. The sources of shariah Kelly (2008) mentions the following sources of Shariah in the religion of Islam (p.109): The Quran; The Sunnah; The Ijtihad; The Ijma; The Qiyas. The Quran Naqvi (2012, p.23) states tha t Muslims believe that the Holy Quran is the final word from Allah. The Holy Quran is the main source of Shariah. In this main source, Allah has provided numerous orders, rules and regulations relating to different aspect of human life. In order to religiously conduct daily human activities, the Holy Quran provides guidance relating to the essential human activities. Broadly speaking, the Holy Quran provides guidance on two aspects of human life: relationship between humans and the relationship between humans and Allah. Between these two aspects, the majority of the guidance has focused on the relationship between humans. As humans are required to interact for various reasons including political, social, economic, and personal and so on, Allah has included maximum guidance on these issues

Stresses for Trainee Counselling Psychologists | Review

Stresses for Trainee Counselling Psychologists | Review Title: A critical commentary on the following research paper: Kumary, A Martyn, B. (2008) Stresses reported by UK trainee counselling psychologists. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, March; 21:19-28 The prospect of entering any postgraduate training program can often be intimidating. Not only due to the academic commitment required, but because of the emotional demands and potential financial stranglehold placed on a student. These issues alone can leave trainees in both counselling and related psychological professions vulnerable to stress, which can not only damage the well-being of the student, but lower the overall quality of care experienced by patients when trainees are on placement (Cushway Tyler 1996; Kumary Baker 2008). Kumary Martyns make the simple argument, based loosely around Crushways (1992) study of UK clinical psychology trainees, that there are key aspects of training that impact on self-reported stress levels. These included poor supervision, financial costs, childcare, personal therapy and extra supervision. Some of these stressors identified cannot be thought of as essential or necessary aspects of training but this in itself is an area of key debate. (Kumary et al 2008). Other research has also highlighted the same key issues within counselling (Szymanska 2002), but has only looked at one issue in isolation and with this in mind, the present study was an investigation of UK counselling psychology trainees self-reports of their experiences of stress when training. One might go as far to question the rational of any study examining potential stress within such professions considering that having gone through an undergraduate degree already, students are already accustomed to a moderate l evel of stress and it simply goes with the territory (Cooper Quick 2003). On the other hand, such a study has never been conducted and may produce compelling results. Subjects were easy to identify and obtain although only UK counselling trainees who were studying for Part 1 of the BPS diploma were recruited. Are we to assume that this is when stress levels are at an optimal level? Questionnaires were sent out to all institutions. While the general characteristics of the sample are well represented, there was only a 41% return rate. This is good, but not outstanding in comparison to research conducted in similar domains, despite numerous follow-up e-mails and telephone calls (Robertson Sundstorm 1990). A financial incentive might have improved this return rate, but pre-paid return envelops were provided. However this data was collected in 2003, but not submitted for publication until 2007. Ethically, this delay in analysis and publication produces results that are already four years out of date in an education system that is constantly evolving (Hadley et al 1995). While such a simple methodology may initially seem sound, on closer inspection, the differences between the training programs of clinical and counselling are only glossed over and there is some evidence to suggest that the disparity between the two hinder a repetition of a seemingly straightforward approach last consulted in 1992 by Cushway. Aside from the time lapse, it is therefore important to consider the other issues surrounding the modification of a methodology previously used to investigate stress in clinical trainees. Firstly, counselling psychologist training tends to be less scientifically orientated than its clinical counterpart and most NHS posts are only open to Clinical Psychologists (Mayne, Norcross Sayette 2000). For example, it is generally accepted that counselling psychologists focus more on the therapeutic alliance with clients having to complete 450 hours of contact by the end of 3rd year training (Hadley et al 1995). While there are considerable similarities between the two disciplines, Norcorss (2000) documents many salient differences including professional activities, theoretical orientations, employment and training settings, graduate admissions and research areas. The question what are the differences in training clinical and counselling psychologists? -does not lend itself to an easy answer because psychology can be applied in so many ways. Traditionally, the main difference is in their training and perspective (Mayne et al 2000). It would appear to be an oversight on Kumary et als (2008) part to use a similar, modified methodology, previously applied to clinical trainees when the stress causing factors may be quite different. With these differences outlined in more detail, the old methodology would appear to require a more radical modification or adaptation from that used previously. Two main instruments were used to examine stress within the sample. The Counselling Psychology Trainee Stress Survey (CPTSS) and The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12) (Wemeke, Goldberg Yalcin 2000). The CPTSS was developed from Cushways (1992) stress survey for clinical psychology trainees with four categories (academic stressors, placement stressors, organizational stressors and personal stressors). What is concerning is the lack of both research confirming the validity of the measure and the small brainstorm session using five trainees under those headings. Furthermore, from their discussion the CPTSS, constructed from 36 items, was only piloted on a further six trainees. This did lead to some changes being made with the authors settling on four descriptive categories slightly different from Cushways; academic demands, lack of support systems, placement stressors and personal and professional development. This displays neither convergent or discriminant validity. Finally, despi te other more valid forms of questionnaires available measuring stress (for example the Psychological Stress Measure (PMS), this study chose one which was quickly devised from a brief investigation and remains untested in the general population (Lemyre Tessier 2003; Trovato et al 2006). The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12) on the other hand has been specifically validated for use in non-psychotic populations (Wemeke et al 2000). Because it is a shortened, 12-item version of the GHQ, it allows for quick completion, is likely to increase participant response, is quick to code and statistical mistakes also become less likely. For the purposes of this study, it appears to be the ideal choice and has been used to great effect in a large body of pervious work (Winefield, Goldney, Winefield, Tiggemann 1989; Vaglum Falkum 1999; Quek, Low, Razack, Loh 2001). A recent review by Jackson (2007) however, pointed out that the 28 item is usually used because the GHQ28 has been more widely used in other working populations, which allows for better comparisons, but the reliability coefficients have ranged from 0.78 to 0.95 in numerous studies and Jackson concludes (2007, p. 57) that: ‘In using this tool with postgraduate students conducting research in many areas of occupational health, the GHQ rarely fails to provide reliable and effective measures of well-being that usually correlate very highly with other measures of working environments or organizations Regardless of how carefully survey data is collected and analyzed, the value of the final result depends on the truthfulness of the respondents answers to the questions asked. Over the last twenty years, researchers have debated extensively about the truthfulness of peoples self-reports, and no clear cut conclusion has emerged (Zechmeister, Zechmesiter, Shaughnessy 2001). If someone is asked whether or not they enjoyed their bath, there is generally no need to question whether this accurately reflects their real feelings. However, in everyday life there are some situations in which researchers should have reason to be suspect. Survey research involves reactive measurement because respondents know that their responses are being recorded. Pressures may be strong for people to respond as they think they should rather than what they actually feel or believe (Zechmeister et al 2001). The term used to describe theses pressures is social desirability and in Kumary Martyns study (2008) the se issues are present in their entirety (Zechmeister et al 2001). For example, a trainee counselling psychologists attitudes towards their own stress and health levels, may be a far cry from their actual stressful behavioural responses. Both the questioners administered rely solely on self report and this gives rise to some further criticism. The approach is straightforward, but there is a trade-off between allowing for a simple analysis and the complex use of questionnaires in any survey based study. It is a fine balance that is difficult to maintain. Self-report questionnaires are all answered at different times and in different locations by each subject. As a result, the measures are vulnerable to inaccuracies caused by confounding variables. For example, a trainee filling in a stress based measure might have just had a particularly stressful day or experience that will effect their score. They could even have exams in a few weeks. Alternatively, reporting the issue of time-management and stress may be meaningless when the respondent evidently has time to sit down and take part in such a study anyway. The results from any self report also lack directness. While there is no ideal direct measure of stress, it is possible to get a better indication by measuring some of the physiological effects in the body. For example, stress might be better measured via heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, brain waves, muscle tension, skin conductance or temperature (Lemyre et al 2003). While more costly, such a study could be replicated using skin conductance monitors, worn by trainee counselling psychologists and correlate daily activities with any changes. This might produce results documenting what aspects of the course give rise to more stress and allow for re-development and changes to be applied where necessary. A more elementary approach might be to use an electronic pager device which asks every hour, how stressed are you now and what are your currently doing? In summary, researchers and clinicians must be careful when adapting clinical tools and methodologies to assess stress. They were designed for pathological disorders and validated using clinical populations and so the statistical distributions are not normal (Trovato et al 2006). As Lemyre et al (2003, p. 1159) state: The concept of stress refers to a set of affective, cognitive, somatic and behavioral manifestations within the range of functional integrity Despite this, thirteen items from the CPTSS were identified as being the most stressful issues in the sample population (none came from lack of support), which were split into two groups. The first included practical issues of finding time, funds and suitable placements. One item was also linked with negotiating these three key areas and could have a subsequent impact on their social life. A second group comprised of more general postgraduate issues: academic pressure and professional socialization. In order to determine a basis for the four groupings within the 37 single items of the CPTSS they were employed as four sub-scales (academic, placement, PPD and lack of support). These also gave acceptable levels of reliability. (Kumary et al 2008). The authors also found some good evidence for demographic variants in stress, with significantly higher stress ratings reported by younger participants and lower for those who were older. The GHQ12 results were in two scoring forms casesness and extend of distress with 54 participants identified as cases had significantly higher CPTSS scores than the 39 non-cases. Key findings from Kumary et al (2008, p. 24) included: The higher the stress rated for an aspect of counselling psychology training, the clearer the indicators of psychiatric distress became older participants had lower CPTSS ratings especially on placement issues men reported lower CPTSS ratings, most notably on academic items The support items attracted less attribution in comparison to academic, placement and PPD issues, despite pilot discussions (Kumary et al 2008), suggesting again that the methodology behind this study was flawed from the start. This does to some extent mirror Cushways (1992) data in that support was viewed by participants as a resource to ease training-induced stress, and participants viewed it as a resource to be used rather than a cause of stress because it was insufficiently provided. Again, with this knowledge available at the outset, why was the same methodology used? At this point, one might mention the issue of correlation and how this does not imply causation, but no profile of a stressed student was possible because most of the results were not significant. The authors admit themselves that the data collected is nothing to be proud of (2008, p. 25). It is difficult to believe that Krumary et al (2008) did not clearly see the unsophisticated and non-standardized status of the CPTSS as a serious issue before conducting such a study particularly when compared with more experimental research methods (Lemyre et al 2003). It is possible that the measures used were not sensitive enough to pick up on individual stress differences between participants. The fact remains however, that the fundamental assumptions were wrong and the question remains, do trainees in professions such as clinical and counselling psychology experience more stress than those within the normal population and if so are such emotional demands a critical part of training? Should t rainees be exposed to unacceptable stress levels and their apparent resilience used as an assessment criterion of professional suitability? (Hadley Mitchell 1995) The basis of this study is not sound enough to warrant any overall generalizations within the target population. The approach was oversimplified at the expense of generalized, poor-quality results. In this sense, the study has contributed little to our knowledge into how trainee counselling psychologists experience stress. The lack of an original approach is a reminder of how academic journals vary in the quality of the research they publish. It is nevertheless important that it was published to illustrate a methodology that clearly failed and thus prevents further repetition. This is the constant winding road of modern applied psychological research. References Cooper, L. C., Quick, C. J. (2003). The stress and loneliness of success. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 16, 1-7 Cushway, D. (1992). Stress in clinical psychology trainees. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 169-179 Cushway, D., Tyler, P. (1996). Stress in clinical psychologists. British Journal of Clinical Psychologists, 31, 169-179 Goldberg DP, et al. (1978) Manual of the General Health Questionnaire (NFER Publishing, Windsor, England). Hadley Mitchell (1995). Counselling Research and Program Evaluation. London: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company Jackson, C. (2007). The General Health Questionnaire. Occupational Medicine, 57, 79 Kumary, A Martyn, B. (2008). Stresses reported by UK trainee counselling psychologists. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 21,19-28 Lemyre, L., Tessier, R. (2003). Measuring psychological stress concept, model and measurement instrument in primary care research. Canadian Family Physician, 49, 1159-1160 Mayne, T. J., Norcross, J. C., Sayette, M. A. (2000). Insiders guide to graduate programs in clinical and counseling psychology (2000-2001 ed). New York: Guilford. Norcross C. J. (2000) Clinical Versus Counselling Psychology: Whats the Diff? Eye on Psi Chi, 5 (1), 20-22 Quek, F. K, Low, Y. W., Razack, H. A., Loh, S. C. (2001). Reliability and validity of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) among urological patents: A Malaysian study. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 55 (5), 509-513 Robertson, M. T., Sundstrom, E. (1990). Questionnaire design, return rates, and response favorableness in an employee attitude questionnaire. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75 (3), 354-357 Szymanska, K. (2002). Trainee expectations in counselling psychology as compared to the reality of the training experience. Counselling Psychology Review, 17, 22-27 Trovato, M. G., Catalano, D., Martines, G. F., Spadaro, D., DI Corrado, D., Crispi, V., Garufi, G., Nuovo, S. (2006). Psychological stress measure in type 2 diabetes. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 10, 69-74 Vaglum, P., Falkum, E. (1999). Self-criticism, dependency and depressive symptoms in a nationwide sample of Norwegian physicians. Journal of Affective Disorders, 52 (1-3), 153-159 Wemeke, U., Goldberg, D., Yalcin, I. (2000). The stability of the factor structure of the General Health Questionaire. Psychological Medicine, 30, 823-829 Winefield, R. H., Goldney, D. R., Winefield, H. A., Tiggemann, M. (1989) The General Health Questionnaire: Reliability and Validity For Australian Youth. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 23 (1), 53-58 Zechmeister, S. J., Zechmesiter, B. E., Shaughnessy, J. J. (2001). Essentials of Research Methods in Psychology, McGraw-Hill Higher Education Schizophrenia: the biological and psychological effect Schizophrenia: the biological and psychological effect The study of psychosis has been much published within the literature. Investigations into the biological, psychological and clinical aspects of the disorder have been greatly seen. An approach which views schizophrenia as a disturbance of information processing appears promising as a way of linking all of the aspects of the disorder. A review of the research in this area led to the suggestion that the basic disturbance in schizophrenia is a weakening of the influences of stored memories of regularities of previous input on current perception. It is argued that the link between information processing disturbances and biological abnormalities may be facilitated by the use of paradigms derived from animal learning theory (latent inhibition and Kamins blocking effect). In a number of animal model studies and indeed human subject studies, on an individuals pattern of performance in acute schizophrenics, the information gained is consistent with the cognitive model. The ways in which such an information-processing disturbance may lead to schizophrenic symptomatology will thus be outlined, with particular reference to the formation and maintenance of delusional beliefs. The core cognitive abnormality may result from a disturbance in any of the brain structures involved in the prediction of subsequent sensory input. The proposed circuit implicates in particular the hippocampus and related areas and is consistent with studies of brain pathology in schizophrenia. Thus, this paper will aim to provide an insight into the biological and psychological effects of schizophrenia and will give an insight into the current treatments available and their effects on the individual and their biological status. Introduction Understanding the varied presentation of the many types of psychotic disorders is still a major challenge within todays scientific capacity. The approaches utilized to clarify their complex nature of such disorders of the neurological system present an ongoing challenge, due to the complexity of the interaction between both biological entities (the brain) and the psychological effects. Thus, the aim of this paper is to review the evolution of our understanding of schizophrenia in terms of the biological and psychological effects of the disorder, based upon a review of the literature findings. Studies, which have been conducted regarding the life-long evolution of mental illnesses, especially schizophrenia, have been publicized for decades and this has managed to initiate the early standing of schizophrenia and of the nature of its chronic states. These experiences have further contributed to the views we hold today regarding the illness, leading in a third phase to the development of a biological-psychosocial model of its evolution which has proved useful for both theoretical and practical purposes. Finally, an understanding of therapeutic experiences and theoretical explorations based on the biological and psychological has helped to minimize the effects of the disease within the patient population. Biological basis of schizophrenia Across the findings within the literature, the question of whether schizophrenia is associated with structural or functional abnormalities of the nervous system, or both, appears to have become the principal focus in many of the biological studies of schizophrenia. A number of different methods of investigation of this system have been conducted including computed tomography studies, which have been able to reveal ventricular enlargement and cortical atrophy in a subgroup of schizophrenic patients. When such enlargement is found within the brain of the majority of patients in the early stages of the illness, they appear to be most severe in patients with negative symptoms and poor outcome. Quantitative neuropathological studies have tentatively demonstrated decreased volume of specific brain areas, neuronal loss, and other changes in the limbic system, basal ganglia, and frontal cortex. Dopamine (DA) remains the neurotransmitter most likely to be involved in schizophrenia, although t here is also evidence for disturbances of serotonin and norepinephrine. Post-mortem and positron emission tomographic studies suggest an increased number of D2 DA receptors in some schizophrenics. Neuroendocrine studies reinforce the role of DA in schizophrenics. Viral infections and autoimmune disturbances may be responsible for some types of schizophrenia, but there is no firm experimental evidence to support either hypothesis. The possibility that mixtures of structural abnormalities and functional changes involving DA occur in the same patients rather than independently as part of two syndromes (Type I, II) seems attractive. The symptoms of schizophrenia patients appear to be diverse, with different elements of the disease having different impacts on different individuals. Since Bleulers (1950) conception of the schizophrenias as a heterogenous disease composed of symptomaticlly different subgroups, attempts have been made to identify biological correlates of specific behavioral dysfunction. Diagnosis of the illness could be seen to have been fraught with difficulties. The initial lack of differentiation between the manic episodes of bipolar affective disorder and schizophrenia still presents as being greatly problematic within studies published within the literature, and subsequent attempts to differentiate between subgroups of schizophrenics have yielded no discrete classification system. The search for an etiology has also been bedeviled by this lack of distinct classification. Nevertheless, the publication of and the conduction of a number of biological theories have contributed to an understanding o f schizophrenia by identifying specific dysfunctional neural areas in determining biochemical changes associated with symptomatology and in formulating new etiological hypotheses. Neurological correlation between neurological studies and the effects of schizophrenia have been examined by research conducted through the use of magnetic resonance imaging, computed and positron emission tomography, and, also postmortem morphological changes (Koning et al, 2010). Studies of cognitive function in association with metabolic and cerebrovascular activity have contributed to the identification of discrete neural dysfunction. In addition, development of the dopamine theory and its relationship to positive symptoms has assisted in diagnostic differentiation, while recent studies on the modulatory role of neuropeptides on neurotransmitters have expanded the scope of the dopamine theory. Several biological theories have been proposed for an etiology of schizophrenia. (Krabbendam et al, 2004) Perinatal complications and viral infection have been suggested either in isolation or in conjunction with genetic factors. Low birth weight has also been proposed as a predisposing or associated factor in the subsequent development of schizophrenia. The viral hypothesis has received impetus from recent research into retroviruses capable of genetic transmission and causing latent disease onset. It is also recognized that factors other than biological, in particular, Psychosocial influences may play an etiological role in schizophrenia. Discussion of these factors, however, will not be discussed in great detail in this paper due to time restrictions. The difficulty of diagnosis As etiological studies rely to a large extent on accurate diagnosis, it is important initially to identify diagnostic problems because this aids an understanding between the interplay between biological and psychological effects, which can be noted in schizophrenics. It has long been recognized that the term schizophrenia incorporates a heterogeneous collection of subgroups, possibly with different etiologies, disease processes, and outcomes. The subsequent categorization of such patients into meaningful groups therefore relies upon differences in symptomatology and long term outcome, and fall broadly into three categories- paranoid versus nonparanoid, negative versus positive, and chronic versus acute (Goldstein Tsuang, 1988) The literature proposes that paranoid groups show a better premorbid adjustment, cognitive performance, and prognosis than the nonparanoid group (Kumra and Schulz, 2008), it has been suggested that this represents a measurement artifact and depends on whether absolute or relative measures of paranoia are used. Studies using absolute predominance measures to the exclusion of other symptoms reject many subjects displaying both sets of symptoms. Many nonpredominance studies show no differences between the groups of an increase in negative outcome as paranoid symptoms increase. Other researchers have proposed that schizophrenics could be categorized into two types placed into their category upon the basis of positive or negative symptom preponderence. Type I, or the positive symptom group, display some of the Schneiderian first rank symptoms of hallucinations and delusions, while Type 2, or the negative symptom group, show affective loss or extinction, speech content poverty, psychomotor deficits, and a general loss of drive or will. One of the problems with this categorization is that many schizophrenics display both sets of symptoms and that schizophrenics with primary positive symptoms often develop negative symptoms over time (Phillips and Silverstein, 2003). This would mean that studies using young subjects showing predominantly Positive symptoms may not be adequately differentiating between groups. Recent refinements of the positive/negative dichotomy have led to a redefinition of negative symptoms congruent with familial genetic factors, developmental dys- function, and the development of psychometric scales to measure relative symptomatology (Pickett-Schnenk et al, 2006). However, the influence of neuroleptic drugs on attentional and extrapyramidal functioning could also contribute to the development of differential symptoms. Furthermore, the effects of early environmental factors, such as perinatal trauma and familial environment, and of concurrent disorders, such as depression, are not adequately taken into account in such studies. Thus, this highlights the difficulties, which can be seen when trying to relate the biological and psychological effects of schizophrenia to a certain pathological aspect of brain development. Within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R; APA, 1987) chronicity is defined as persistence of disturbance for more than two years with further residual diagnosis if subsequent symptoms are primarily negative. It is assumed to be associated with negative symptoms within Crows typography (Crow, 1980). This classification is the most common in the literature because of its basis in psychiatric diagnosis and its relationship to poor prognosis and to biological and cognitive deficits. For the purpose of biological research, the argument appears to be somewhat circular however because, for example, research attempts to find biological correlates of subgroups that are often operationally defined by their biological correlates. Moreover, there is significant overlap between the two groups in that many initially acute schizophrenics subsequently become chronic (by definition). While researchers across the literature publications acknowledge the heterogeneity of the disease, they continue to rely operationally on a dichotomous diagnosis. Multiple research strategies on the same subgroup would assist in isolating behavioural and biological attributions and in refining diagnostic criteria. Biochemical research and the impact on our understanding of the effects of schizophrenia Disruptions of neural biochemical processes have been extrapolated both from the effects of psychomimetic drugs and from the actions of symptom-reducing neuroleptic drugs. Drugs such as amphetamine and L-dopa, which cause psychotic conditions (e.g., hallucinations and paranoia), are known to involve excesses of dopamine release (Goodwin, 1972). Although different classes of neuroleptics are known to block acetylcholine, noradrenaline, or serotinin transmission, all of them block dopamine, and symptom reduction is thought to emanate from the latter (Millar et al, 2001). Within the dopamine theory two models of dysfunction have been proposed: autoreceptor excess, and postsynaptic receptor mechanism deficit. Different classes of neuroleptics vary in whether action is pre- or postsynaptic, but an inhibition of dopamine transmission is effected by all classes. Two classes of dopamine receptors have been identified-D1 and DP as previously mentioned, and it is believed that they are related to schizophrenia and neuroleptic effects. Distinctions between the two are based upon their actions on adenylate cyclase: stimulatory for Dl and distinct or inhibitory for D2 (Murray et al, 2008). Dl neurons, which project from the substantia nigra to the corpus striatum, are implicated in Parkinsons disease. Inhibition of Dl receptors is believed to be the origin of neuroleptic side effects, such as tardive dyskinesia and parkinsonianism. D2 receptors are associated with the antipsychotic effects of neuroleptic drugs and form the mesolimbic dopamine system which projects to the frontal cortex and some limbic forebrain structures (Tseng et al, 2008). The proposition that schizophrenic symptoms are caused by an excess of D2 receptors was initially difficult to substantiate due to drug effects and disease process. In most postmortem studies showing higher densities of dopamine receptors, previous antipsychotic drug use is also implicated (Seeman, 1986). However, in several studies subjects had never been treated with neuroleptics and still evinced increased dopamine receptor density (Trower et al, 2004). The role of dopamine receptor anomalies has also been studied using differential effects of classes of neuroleptics on dopamine receptors. In vivo Positron Emission Tomography (PET) research using the ligand [Cl raclopride has indicated that diverse classes of neuroleptic drugs administered in clinically effective doses block D2 dopamine receptors in the putamen. suggesting increased D2 dopamine density in schizophrenic subjects (Thompson et al, 2001). Research on the role of the atypical neuroleptic, clozapine, on dopamine receptors has however yielded inconsistent results. It is thought that the relative absence of extrapyramidal side effects with clozapine administration is due to a selective effect on D2 dopamine activity in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens but not in the substantia nigra or striatum. Haloperidol, on the other hand, reduces dopamine activity in both areas. The effects of both drug classes have been observed in rats using in vivo extracellular sing le-unit recordings (Tseng et al, 2009). However, clozapine also acts antagonistically on cholinergic, a-adrenergic, his- tamine, and serotonin receptors and, in addition, the combination of haloperidol with the a-noradrenergic antagonist, prazosin, produces similar effects to clozapine administration, namely, reduced basal dopamine release in the striatum but not in the nucleus accumbens (Thimm et al, 2010). Studies on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of prolactin following clozapine administration have also yielded inconsistent reslults. Prolactin release is inhibited by dopamine and increased by conventional neuroleptics. However, in at least one study it has been found that administration of clozapine to human schizophrenic subjects produced no significant increase in prolactin levels 11 hours after administration, despite moderate to marked therapeutic effects (Meltzer, Goode, Schyve, Young, Fang, 1979). Several recent studies have also implicated Dl receptor blocks in the therapeutic effects of clozapine. A further obstacle to the initial acceptance of the dopamine theory has been the time discrepancy between drug administration and antipsychotic symptomatic effects. PET studies have shown immediate binding to dopamine receptor sites, yet their clinical effect is often delayed for several weeks (Tarrier et al, 1999). There have been suggestions that receptors blocks produce an initial overactivity of dopamine release to compensate for inhibition. Further evidence for the dopamine theory has come from measurements of CSF, and plasma levels of the dopamine metabolite, homovanillic acid (HVA). Although findings in unmedicated patients have not yielded consistent differences in HVA levels between schizophrenics and controls, neuroleptic treatment increases HVA levels (Abubaker et al, 2008). In unmedicated patients, a correlation between low HVA levels and cortical atrophy and ventricular enlargement has been found in at least one study. This has led to the suggestion that dopamine excess is related to Type 1 schizophrenia, an interpretation which is supported by a good response to neuroleptic drugs in this group (Crow, 1985). In addition, Allen et al (2008) has suggested a possible deficiency of dopamine in Type 2 schizophrenics. However, the Type l-Type 2 typography has not been fully supported, and there is evidence that neuroleptic drugs elicit response in negative symptom sufferers (Allen et al, 2008). From the evidence there is little doubt of the biological role of dopamine within some forms of schizophrenia. The influence of serotonin in schizophrenia was suggested by the antagonistic activity of the psychomimetic drug, D-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), on serotonin transmission (Addinton and Addington, 1993). This has been studied in CSF by measuring levels of the serotonin precuresor, tryptophan, and the metabolite 5- hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA). At least one study has found reduced levels of 5-HIAA in schizophrenics and no difference between those on and off neuroleptics, but the latter group had only been drug free for a short time (three weeks). Therefore residual effects cannot be discounted. It was not stated whether subjects were also suffering from depression, which is known to decrease serotonin levels (Akbarian and Huang, 2009). Neither increasing nor decreasing serotonin levels have had a beneficial effect on schizophrenic symptoms (Akbarian and Huang, 2009). Monoamine oxidase (MAO) metabolizes dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline, as well as endogenous stimulants or hallucinogens such as phenylethylamine and diethltryptamine. It has therefore been hypothesized that decreased MAO activity could be contributory to schizophrenia. Studies have been conducted into platelet MAO activity in schizophrenics with varying results. Meltzer and Arora (1980) found that decreased MAO platelet activity was positively correlated with paraniod and positive symptoms. Other studies have found no un- usual MAO platelet activity in paranoid or hallucinating schizophrenics (Arts et al, 2008) Recent research has also considered the role of neuro-peptides in modulating CNS functions and the possible implications for schizophrenic symptomatology. Endorphins have been the subject of the most intensive study because of their association to proposed neural deficit areas both in biochemical and neuropathlogical research. The B, y, and (Y endorphins originate in the basal hypothalamus and modulate neurotransmitter activity in several structures of the limbic system and brain stem. Of all the biochemical theories of schizophrenia, the dopamine hypothesis has been the most consistently substantiated in research. The implication of other neurotransmitters, however, suggests a possible diffuse dysfunction with dopamine eliciting the most severe disruption. Efforts have been made to control for medication, but residual drug effects cannot be discounted. Many studies now use chlorpromazine equivalents to control for the effects of varying medication levels. The problem with this method is that, although different classes of neuroleptics all reduce dopamine levels either pre- or postsynaptically, they do not have equivalent effects on serotonin, MAO, or noradrenalin. Further problems are encountered when attempts are made to ascribe an etiological function to neurotransmitter activity. It is equally probable that any such changes are caused by the disease process rather than their being causal. Structual brain abnormalities The neuropathology of schizophrenia has received considerable recent interest in the light of positron emmission tomography (PET), postmortem, cognitive function and cerebral blood flow (CBF) research. While PET scans and postmortem investigation have concentrated on structural measurements, cognitive studies have provided tacit support for such structural changes. It has been hypothosized that neuropathological abnormalities identified in subgroups of schizophrenics could be in vitro developmental disorders either genetically transmitted or resulting from prenatal trauma (Ashburner et al, 2008). The most consistent findings across the publications within the literature have been differences in ventricular size, in some sections of the temporal limbic and nigrostriatal systems and basal ganglia, and in the prefrontal cortex. Measurements of ventricular size have however, shown considerable inconsistency, with some studies finding no significant difference between subjects and non-schizophrenic controls (Bles et al, 2010), and some reporting significant differences between chronic paranoid and hebephrenic subjects and normal controls (Bales et al, 2010). Evidence to date suggests that ventricular enlargement is only salient for a small subgroup of schizophrenics subject to chronicity or other, as yet unidentified, factors. Inconsistency in the results could be due to deviations in subject samples. It has been proposed that atrophy of specific neural areas could account for some schizophrenic symptoms. While some evidence has come directly from postmortem studies. Abnormalities have also been inferred from the results of PET and CAT scans and CBF measurements performed in conjunction with cognitive tasks designed to activate specific neural areas. Postmortem studies have identified significant cortical atrophy in the lateral nigro-striatal area (Birchwood et al, 2004) and in the limbic portions of the temporal lobe, specifically the amygdala, hippocampus, and parahippocampal gyrus (Birchwood et al, 2004). Psychotherapies and social treatments The psychological effects and impacts of schizophrenia must be emphasized. Due to the impact of the different, aforementioned parts of the brain and the CNS in schizophrenia, the psychological impact of the disease is obviously one, which takes great effect as previously mentioned. Psychotherapies are thought to be important within the current treatment lines in schizophrenia and although antipsychotic medications are the mainstay of treatment for schizophrenia, pharmacotherapy alone produces only limited improvement in negative symptoms, cognitive function, social functioning and quality of life. Additionally, it has been found that a great number of patients continue to suffer from persistent positive symptoms and relapses particularly when they fail to adhere to prescribed medications. This underlines the need for multi-modal care including psychosocial therapies as adjuncts to antipsychotic medications to help alleviate symptoms and to improve adherence, social functioning and qu ality of life (Patterson and Leeuwenkamp, 20008). A short review of the evidence that has accumulated on the efficacy of the major modalities of psychosocial treatment highlights that treatments involving social skills training, psychoeducation and cognitive behavioural therapies (CBTs) can all have a role in the treatment of individuals with schizophrenia. The reasoning behind the success of each treatment can give guidance into the psychological effects of the disease. For example, Psychoeducational interventions provide information about the disorder and its treatment to patients and their family members, and additionally inform the patients and family members about strategies to cope with schizophrenic illness. From the literature findings, it is evident that an extensive body of literature has accumulated regarding the efficacy of these interventions. Meta-analyses suggest that these interventions reduce high expressed emotion among relatives, and decrease relapse and rehospita lization rates (Pitschel et al, 2002; Giron et al, 2010). In general, interventions that include family members are found to have a much greater level of success (Pharaoh et al, 2006). Multi-family psychoeducation group approaches, which provide family psychoeducation and additionally offer an expanded social network, are found to reduce rates of relapse as are peer-to-peer education programs for families and patients (Chien et al, 2006). Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) About a third of patients with schizophrenia continue to suffer from persistent psychotic symptoms despite adequate pharmacotherapy. Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) has therefore been presented as a system of treatment which has emerged to address this need, and is based on the hypothesis that psychotic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations stem from misinterpretations and irrational attributions caused by self-monitoring deficits. CBT seeks to help patients rationally appraise their experience of disease symptoms and how they respond to them, thereby reducing symptoms and preventing relapse (Turkington et al, 2008). Meta-analytic evaluations of this data have found CBT to be effective in ameliorating positive symptoms (Rector and Beck, 2001) although effect sizes of CBT have been noted to be inconsistent across studies and a recent meta-analysis of six blinded studies (Lynch et al, 2010) found CBT to be ineffective in reducing any symptoms of schizophrenia or in preventing relapse; the fairness of this analysis has been questioned (Kingdon et al, 2010). CBT is reported to be ineffective in targeting negative symptoms and its effects on other treatment domains are not well studied. Although CBT is recommended as a standard of care for persons with schizophrenia (NICE, 2009) the results are thought to give the best outcomes in patients who are willing to comply with treatment. Cognitive remediation A substantive proportion of schizophrenia patients have impaired cognition, particularly in the domains of psychomotor speed, attention, working memory and executive function, verbal learning and social cognition. These deficits are robust and persist during the illness, and serve as rate limiting factors for functional recovery (Tandon et al, 2009). Several cognitive remediation approaches have been developed over the past two decades which involve compensation strategies to organize information, use of environmental aids such as reminders and prompts, and a range of techniques designed to enhance executive function and social cognition (Eack et al, 2010). Earlier reviews and meta-analyses which have been presented and published within the literature findings have suggested that cognitive remediation leads to modest improvements in performance on neuropsychological tests but has limited generalization to functional outcomes (Pilling et al, 2002) One large meta-analysis published by McGurk et al, (2007), however, found that cognitive remediation was associated with significant improvements in cognitive performance and symptoms, as well as psychosocial functioning in schizophrenia. Cognitive remediation has been found to be more effective in studies that provided adjunctive psychiatric rehabilitation in addition to cognitive remediation. Thus, it appears to be the case that the durability of benefits of cognitive remediation are not yet set in stone. Social skills training (SST) Schizophrenia patients manifest deficits in social competence and these contribute to poor outcome. The goal of SST is to improve day-to-day living skills by focusing on components of social competence such as self-care, basic conversation, vocational skills, and recreation. These skills are practiced mostly in group settings using techniques based on operant and social learning theory. Historically, token economy was the first such intervention that sought to improve the social behavior of patients with psychiatric illness. While effective, the results did not generalize beyond the therapeutic setting. A recent meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of social skills training in schizophrenia showed a large effect size for improvement in skills, a moderate effect size for performance-based social and community skills and for community functioning, and a small effect size for symptoms and relapse (Kurts and Mueser, 2008) Conclusions Thus, in conclusion, and in review of the findings published within the literature, it si clear that the impact of both biological aspects of the disease and psychological impacts are prevalent within the schizophrenic population. In summary, research on psychosocial approaches to treatment of schizophrenia has yielded incremental evidence of efficacy of CBT, SST, family psychoeducation, ACT and supported employment. Relatively few rigorously conducted trials of psychosocial interventions have been reported in the early course of schizophrenia, a phase of the illness when effective interventions may yield long-term outcome benefits . More hypothesis-driven research is needed to examine active ingredients of the therapeutic modalities that work, to identify the synergistic effects of combinations of interventions, and to use the knowledge which we have gained from the biological impact of the disease and the understandings of the neurological circuitry and its implications in schizoph renia to aid the development of new methods of reducing the effects of schizophrenia on the patient population.

Terrorism As An International Phenomenon Essay -- essays research pape

Terrorism as an International Phenomenon International terrorism, intelligence gathering and covert operations are all phenomenon, which intrigue the minds of many people both young and old. This paper is a historical recount and study on the various elements that comprise an international operation. It is also a vehicle for discussing the effects of intelligence agencies around the world, with particular interest in the CIA, Mossad, and KGB. This paper will show the various results of failed missions on the international community, examining whether the end justified the mean. Furthermore, it will also provide a deeper understanding to the way in which an operation works as developed through the mind of the agent, as well as the underlying reason for a particular action. In order to comprehend the following paragraphs one must have a knowledge of the terms which may be used when discussing espionage, international terrorism and intelligence agencies throughout the world. First is the spy, agent or combatant. This is the person who carries out a mission. He/she does not necessarily work alone. Depending on the mission one or many spies may contribute in various ways. The entire team of spies, combatants or agents is called a â€Å"pod†. These pods can act in a plethora of ways. One such way is a clandestine operation, where the actions are taken on foreign soil, specifically in the State, or Country where the result will occur. Generally there are two different types of combatants: those who work in the in the field actually performing operations and those who infiltrate another government, posing as a citizen of that country, in order to provide his/her home country with secret information. The latter is called a mole, or a double agent. He is one who pretends to be from the Country in which he is spying, in order to gain the confidence of that government before he enters it, usually as a spy. Now that the reader has a basic knowledge of the vocabulary necessary to understand the information to be read, this person must first comprehend the history of espionage and terrorism. Although espionage dates as far back as biblical times when Moses sent spies into the land of Israel, this paper is only concerned with more contemporary organized espionage operations. The firs... ...: 54 Issue: 2 March 1998. Pgs. 62-63. Central Intelligence Agency," Microsoft ® Encarta ® 97 Encyclopedia.  © 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Chabin, Michelle. USA Today. â€Å"Israel Swaps Hamas Leader for two Agents†. Sec.: A Pg.: 1 Col.: 6 October 7, 1997. Cooperman, Alan. US News and World Report. â€Å"When Spies and Poison Go Awry†. Vol.: 123 Issue: 14 October 13, 1997. Page 42. Draper, Theodore. New York Review of Books. â€Å"Is the CIA Necessary?†. Vol.: 44 Issue: 13 August 14, 1997. Pages 16-22. Kornbluh, Peter. Nation. â€Å"Beyond the Bay of Pigs†. Vol.: 266 Issue: 15 April 27, 1998. Pages 25-26. Makovsky, David. US News and World Report. â€Å"Israel’s Mossad Blushes Again†. Vol.: 124 Issue: 9 March 9, 1998. Page 39. Newsweek. â€Å"A Spy in the Network†. November 9, 1998. Page 2. Persico, Joseph E. New York Times Book Review. â€Å"Spy vs. Spy†. Sec.:7 Page: 15 Col.: 1. September 28, 1997. US News and World Report. â€Å"America Fights Back†. August 31, 1998. Page 42. US News and World Report. â€Å"The Recruiter for Hate†. August 31, 1998. Page 48. Westerby, Gerald. In Hostile Territory: Business Secrets of a Mossad Combatant. Harper Business: New York, 1998.

The Importance of Learning Organization

L & D Assignment 2: The Importance of Learning Organization A learning organization works with ideas i. e. it comes up with new ideas on all levels, disseminates these new ideas across the organization and finally inculcates these new ideas into operations by embedding them in its policies processes and reviews. It has structured mechanisms and processes put in place to generate knowledge and it takes this new knowledge as a basis of responding to the change in its business environment. A learning organization as per its formal definition is skilled at two things which are as follows: a. Creating, acquiring, interpreting, transferring and retaining knowledge which is relevant to its business processes for enable it to achieve its business objective in an efficient manner. b. ) Acting or modifying its behaviour as an organization to respond to that new knowledge and insights. To be a successful organization one must monitor its processes and make sure that they are efficient. A learni ng organization observes its business processes and learns where it is efficient and where it is not.It encourages organizations to shift to a more interconnected way of thinking. A learning organization has five main features; systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models, shared vision and team learning. In the article â€Å"Is yours a learning organization† the authors David Garvin and Amy Edmondson described the three building blocks of learning which fosters the creation of a learning organization which are as follows: a. ) A supportive learning environment b. ) A concrete learning processes and practices c. Leadership that reinforces learning Importance of learning organization in current business context: Ray Stata, the confounder and chairman of the board of Analog Devices once quoted â€Å"The rate at which organizations learn may become the only sustainable source of competitive advantage. † In highly competitive current business scenario products and ser vices can easily be copied or emulated by the competitors. Even processes can be copied for example Six sigma is easily available and accessible to anyone for implementation.Thus the only source of sustainable competitive advantage for any organization is rapid pace of learning and the execution of this new knowledge in its internal processes. Furthermore, the current business environment is evolving at a very rapid pace due to globalization, deregulation and evolution of new business paradigms. As an organization the only way to survive and compete in this business environment is to have a rate of learning which is greater than this rate of change of the business environment. Barriers in being a learning organization: The idea of a learning organization is been around for quite some time.The discussion about the learning organization has been around for almost 4 decades but there were certain shortcomings and limitations of in these ideas of learning organizations. As a result of w hich these ideas have failed to bring about little concrete change as they should have. Firstly, the fundamental fallacies with these initial ideas were that they were abstract concepts without concrete prescriptions for actions for the organizations. For an organization to be able to change, it needs to know the steps necessary to solve the problems it faces.Secondly, these initial concepts of learning organization were aimed at the top managements of the organization without including the middle level managers. These managers heading divisions, departments and projects where the real critical work of the organization happens. Their inclusion was very necessary because these are the people who are primarily responsible for generation of business intelligence at the operational level. Thirdly, there was real lack or standards or tools through which the managers can assess how well they were doing on being a learning organization. An Ideal learning organization:The concept of perfect ion is in itself elusive as no individual or organization cannot ever claim to be perfect no matter how good they are. However, the one organization which comes very close to becoming a ideal learning organization is General Electric (GE). Infact, In his last letter to the shareholders Jack Welch wrote that I finally understand why we as an organization are so successful. The reason is that we are an learning organization. They have all three building blocks (processes, environment and leadership) which is prerequisite to become a successful learning organization. Role of management in building Learning Organization:Managers can help their teams have a supportive learning environment. In particular, the concept of psychological safety where the perceive that the workplace environment one that is comfortable for asking questions, making mistakes and floating of new ideas related their job role responsibilities. Basically, the managers facilitate the creation of a workplace environmen t which is conducive to taking personal risks by the employees that it is absolutely essential for learning. The managers should make conscious efforts to help people be comfortable with the risks which are present in the workplace today.So that the employees can engage in the learning processes without fear. Apart from a supportive learning environment the managers can also put in place concrete processes and procedures for experimentation, sharing knowledge and best practices across the organization and ways of reflecting on what we have learned from past expierence. Each of these are systematic processes where companies generate ideas, respond to new knowledge and reflect on what they have already learnt. In some organisations a lack of a learning culture can be a barrier to learning.An environment must be created where individuals can share learning without it being devalued and ignored, so more people can benefit from their knowledge and the individuals becomes empowered. A lea rning organization needs to fully accept the removal of traditional hierarchical structures. As a manager the most ideal way to start implementation of the concept of Learning organization in its organization is to start within his/her own department by modelling the behaviours of learning himself like showing curiosity, asking a questions and laying emphasis on disruptive innovation.This kind of leadership at department levels creates the environment where more structured kind of processes to build a learning organization can take form. References: 1. ) Garvin, David A. â€Å"Building a learning organization. † Harvard Business Review (1993). 2. ) Garvin, David A. , Amy C. Edmondson, and Francesca Gino. â€Å"Is yours a learning organization. † Harvard Business Review (2008). 3. ) Darling, Marilyn, Charles Parry, and Joseph Moore. â€Å"Learning in the thick of it. † Harvard Business Review (2005).

Introduction to Computer Aided Engineering with Ansys

Introduction Traditionally, Engineers have used laboratory testing equipment to test the structural behavior of materials. While this method is appreciated and is highly acceptable especially for linear cases the reliance on time consuming and expensive laboratory has hindered progress in the complexity of designed considered. However, the continual rapid advances in computer aided engineering (CAE) over the years have affected this area significantly.In many engineering disciplines, the application of advance finite element tools has not only allowed the introduction of innovative, effective and efficient designs, but also the development of better and more accurate design methods. (M. Mahendren, 2007). In this assignment, an advance Finite element tool (Ansys parametric design Language) is used to analyze the design, material properties, linear stress and modal analysis on components with linear isotropic structural materials.The basis of finite element analysis (FEA) relies on the decomposition of the domain into a finite number of sub-domains (elements) for which the systematic approximate solution is constructed by applying the variation or weighted residual methods (Erdogan Madenci. Ibrahim Guven, 2006). In effect, FEA reduces the problem to that of a finite number of unknowns by dividing the domain into elements and by expressing the unknown field variable in terms of the assumed approximating functions within each element (M. Asghar Bhatti, 2005).These functions (also called interpolation functions) are defined in terms of the values of the field variables at specific points, referred to as nodes. Nodes are usually located along the element boundaries, and they connect adjacent elements. This assignment is a demonstration on how engineers use numerical solutions to refine and validate design in the early stages of product design. For the task1 of this assignment, a bracket with structural isotropic material properties of young’s Modulus, E=200Gpa , v=0. 3 and .Will be analyze, two things are important to the design engineer, what is the applied force on the material that will cause it to begin to fail given the properties and geometry shown in figure 1A below. At what point does it begin to fail (What point has the maximum stress). Having knowledge of these two factors, the engineer will decide to design the bracket to bear this load without failure or if the load to be applied will be reduce provided the design is not necessary a product or component that must bear such load.At every point in the design, the design engineer is inclined to make decisions that will affect the overall functionality of the Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page1 various components involve in the design. Computer aided engineering , has made sure that the engineer will not pass through the cumbersome experience of conducting laboratory test to determine failure, rather few hours spen d on the workstation ( computer system ) with a hightech finite element software, will not only save time, but the resources involve for every laboratory experiment.And with the integration of CAD modeling software to FEA software, the engineer can actually model the real components and conduct test that are closely related to how the system will perform in its application. Task2 of this assignment is to explore the effect of bending moment and torque and the corresponding, shear stress and normal stress respectively. There are some designs that the engineer has to consider the effect at a particular point, element or component. For this task, we will consider the stress at point A due to the effect of the bending moment and torque produce by the applied force.Task 3 is a modal analysis on a simply supported solid brick; two natural frequencies are to be presented. In design, it is essential that the natural frequency of the system is known so as to find out if the system can perfor m effectively without failure due to resonance (vibration). For this the first natural frequency is important. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page2 Task 1 Figure1A: Bracket Model Analysis steps 1. : Preprocessing Preprocessing involves, preparing the model for analysis, defining the type of analysis, discretization of the model into finite elements. For any analysis in the finite element method, this step is very essential as the result is dependent on this stage. 1. 1: Define element type: For this model, element type 8-node-plane82 is defined. And on the option, plane stress w/thk is selected. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page3 Figure1: showing Element selection with option. . 2: Setting real Constant: The thickness of the model is 10mm. Figure2: Showing Real Constants with thickness 10mm. 1. 3: Material Models: A linear elastic isotropic material i s applied with a Young’s Modulus of elasticity of 200GPa and Poisson ratio of 0. 3 Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page4 Figure 3: Showing materials model with Young’s Modulus of elasticity of 200GPa. ( 1. 4: Geometric Model: The steps involve in the modeling bracket to be analyze is shown.To model the geometry correctly, key points are created, lines are created to join the key points, the lines are use to create area, the two circles are drawn and subtracted from the area and so is the slot. 1. 4. 1: Create key points using table 1 below Table 1: key points for bracket KP. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 X 0 30 50 74 74 130 Y 0 0 36 50 25 50 Z 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page5 7 8 130 0 85 85 0 0 Figure4: key points mapped for bracket 1. 4. 2: Create Line (Preprocessor>>Modeling>>Line>>Straight line: join the keypointsFigure 5: showing line s created from the key points. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page6 Figure 6: Arc created using Larc,3,4,5,25 ( Line arc joining keypoints,3, 4 at center 5 and radius 25mm. ) 1. 4. 3: Create area-(preprocessor>>modeling>>create>>Areas>>Arbitrary>>By lines ) select all lines Figure 7: created area from lines. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page7 1. 4. 4 Create two circles Circle1: x =15, y=15, radius=7. 5 Circle2:x=40,y=62. , radius=7. 5 Cut out the circle from the main area using Preprocessor>>modeling>> Operate>> Boolean>> Subtract (Select the big area and click apply and then the two circles) Figure 8: showing subtracted circular areas. 1. 4. 5: Create the slot- first create the two circles, then the rectangle, use Boolean subtraction operation to cut out the slot. Circle1: x=87. 5, y=67. 5, radius=7. 5; Circle 2: x=112. 5, y=67. 5, r=7. 5 Rectangle: coordinates (87. 5, 60) & (112. 5, 75) Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. WahyudiPage8 Figure 9: showing model with slot 1. 4. 6: mesh: This is a key part of the finite element method. The model is discretized into finite element. This process is necessary as the solution is solved for each element and then a global solution is obtained by combining the result for each element. This involves finding the stiffness matrix for each element, the force matrix for each element, and then obtaining both global stiffness and force matrix. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page9 Figure 10: Meshed Model of the bracketFigure11: Refined mesh model at the slot, circles and arc. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page10 2. 0 Processing (Solution): To obtain the solution for the model, the type of analysis, constraints (di splacement constraints), and the load will be define. This is like defining the boundary conditions. 2. 1: Boundary Conditions (All DOF= 0 at the two circles) Figure 11: Boundary condition (0 displacements to all DOF at the two circles) Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page11 2. Boundary Condition (apply pressure at the slot) Figure 12: Pressure of 19. 26 MPa is applied on the slot 2. 3 Solve the built model to obtain the solution Figure 2. 3: The step use to solve the current Load step Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page12 3. 0 : Post processing In this stage, the result will be listed, plotted and analyzed. Deformed shape to illustrate result has been obtained in the Postprocessor Phase. TASK1B TASK 1B: Maximum Load applied without causing yielding Analytical solution of task1 Free Body Diagram of Bracket W WA L1 0L2 10 47. 5 72. 5 90 Nangi Ebughni Okor ia- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page13 In this analysis, we are going to consider the effect of the uniformly distributed load to act at ? of the width of the bracket; h= 35/2=17. 5mm. First we analyze the system for the shear force, v and bending moment, M. The shear force and bending moment is plotted against x. W is the distributed load along the 25mm slot. is the distribution reaction load along the 10mm length from the center of the circle. ; Sum of vertical forces equals zero ; Where F is the force due to W and ; (i. . I). For the Boundary Condition is the force due to . ) 0 ? x ? 10 < Mx WA x V ; Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page14 ; †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (2) 10 ? x ? 47. 5 < M wA 10 V FA x ; †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (3) ; †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (4) Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page15 47. 5 ? x ? 72. 5 V 25w 10 < M x ; ; †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (5) 0; †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (6) Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page16 ; ; †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. (7) ; †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (8)Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page17 Shear Force & Bending Moment Diagram Graph of x against shear force v 0 0 -5 -10 10 X-Axis 47. 5 72. 5 90 V-Axis -15 v -20 -25 -30 Figure1B. Shear Force Diagram (Graph) Graph of x against bending Moment M 1600 1400 1200 Axis Title 1000 800 600 400 200 0 M 0 0 10 125 47. 5 1062. 5 72. 5 1375 90 1375 Figure 1C: Bending Moment diagram. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page18 From the shear force and bending moment diagram, it can be observe that at x=47. the shear force is maximum and the bending moment is maximum at the region , however the shear force at this region is zero. So using x=47. 5 as the point where the stress will begin to be maximum (initiate) value, the value of w and F can be obtained there as followed. mm; note that we are using 17. 5 on the assumption that the uniformly distributed load acts at the center of the bracket. Shear stress, ; Note that this is the shear stress due to the effect of the shear force when the bracket is fully restrained at the two circles. Normal stress, Note that the normal stress above is due to the bending moment, M.Now, in other to find the value of w, Von mises failure criterion is applied. First , we calculate the first and seco nd principal stress, since the bracket is subject and to be analyze under plane stress condition. Von Mises stress, , =2. 11075w Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page19 Now by Von Mises Stress Failure Criteria, ; where is the yield strength of the material use for analysis. Since this uniformly distributed load acts at the slot of 25mm, the force that is been applied due to this uniformly distributed load, .For the purpose of analysis of the bracket as presented in the assignment using ansys APDL, this force could be applied as a pressure; Task1B ( II): Where will the stress initiate From the shear force diagram and bending moment diagram above, the stress will initiate ate x=47. 5. This is because at this point the shear force, v is maximum and the moment, M is maximum between 47. 5 to 72. 5. Note that for this calculation, the assumption use is that since the material is a linear isotropic material, the load is linear ly proportional to the stress. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page20 Figure1B. II: showing that the stress will initiate at 47. 5, this also where the maximum stress exist. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page21 Task1C: Maximum Deflection Figure1. 1C: Nodal Displacement plot showing maximum Deflectionof 0. 136653mm The nodal plot above shows that the maximum deflection at the right end of the bracket is 0. 136653mm. I have included deformed shape plot of the bracket to better show how the bracket deformed.Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page22 Figure1. 2C: Deformed shaped & un-deformed shaped of the bracket Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page23 Figure 1. 3C: Deformed shaped of bracket. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page24 Task 1D: Maximum stress The maximum von Mises stress obtained is259. 676MPa. The Von Mises stress failure criterion is use for this analysis. Figure1. 1D: Maximum Von-mises StressVon Mises Failure Criterion The von Mises Criterion (1913), also known as the maximum distortion energy criterion, octahedral shear stress theory, or Maxwell-Huber-Hencky-von Mises theory, is often used to estimate the yield of ductile materials. The von Mises criterion states that failure occurs when the energy of distortion reaches the same energy for yield/failure in uniaxial tension. Mathematically, this is expressed as, Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page25 In the cases of plane stress, s3 = 0. The von Mises criterion reduces to,This equation represents a principal stress ellipse as illustrated in the following figure, Figure 1. 2D: Illustration of Von Mises Theory. Nangi Ebug hni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page26 Figure 1. 2D: Showing position of maximum Von-Mises Stress Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page27 Task1E: Discussion Of result 1E. 1: Discussion on nodal displacement Figure1. 1E: Nodal Displacement Plot From the nodal displacement plot above, it can be observed that the deflection on the left side of the bracket after the circle.The minimum deflection is on the first circle from the right. This is to say that the displacement at this circle is fully restrained, meaning all DOF is zero. The Blue part of the plot shows that there is no deflection. Also a closer look shows that at the right end of the bracket, the displacement is maximum. The plot shows that maximum deflection occurs at the uppermost right node of the bracket. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page28 Figure 1. 3E: Displacement Vector plot showing the direction of the deflection and how the bracket deflect.IE. 2: Discussion of Maximum Stress Distribution Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page29 Figure1. E1:Arrow diagram the stress at different locations Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page30 Figure 1. E2: stress distribution contour plot. Fig. 1. E1 and Fig. 1. E2 shows that the bracket will experience maximum stress around x= 47. 5 mm, this is to say at the stress is maximum. This is in accordance with the manual calculation obtained in Task1B above. Also comparing Figure 1. E1&1.E2 and the bending moment & shear force diagram shown in figure1B and figure 1C above of task 1B, one could conclude that the assumption used for the manual calculation is correct since the min stress on the model is at the 2nd circle. Also the stress at the top circle is mini mal and is increasing from zero to the maximum value of stress at x=47. 5. This result plotted above is when P=19. 26MPa, though this value is slightly higher than the12. 32MPa obtained from the manual calculation the result is similar. The pressure is less at Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. WahyudiPage31 12. 32 because; the assumption use for the calculation was the uniformly distributed load was acting at the center of the slot. In the application of this bracket, one will be careful not to use a pressure greater than 12. 32MPa on it as this may result to yielding. The design engineer ensured that the applied force on the bracket does not initiate a stress greater than the yield strength of the material. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page32 Task2 Analysis of a lever Arm For the assignment component no2, a lever arm is to be analyzed using ansys.The analysis w ill be conducted to determine the Von-Misses stress at element A as shown in fig. 2. 1 below. A force acts on the components at the 38cm component shown. Figure2. 1: Showing a component of lever arm analyzed in this assignment Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page33 2A: Analysis using Ansys Parametric designs Language (Mechanical APDL). Steps in the analysis Preprocessor 2A-1: Define Element type Element Type>> Add>>Solid>>10 node solid 187>>ok Figure2A. : Element type 2A-2: Material Model Material Props>>Material Model>> Structural>>Linear>>Elastic>>Isotropic Young Modulus of 206 X103 N/mm2 is applied. And poison ratio v=0. 3. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page34 Figure 2B: material properties 2A-3 Geometric model Steps in Modeling the Geometry are as followed: 2A-3. 1 Create Key points using the table below Table 2- Table Key Point No 1 2 3 4 X 0 0 50 50 Y 0 19 19 12. 5 Z 0 0 0 0 Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page35 5 6 7 8 355 355 455 455 12. 5 19 19 0 0 0 0 0 Figure 2A-3. 1 Plot of Key points Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page36 2A-3. 2: Create straight Line between the following key points: Kp1&Kp2; Kp2&Kp3; Kp3&Kp4; Kp4& Kp5; Kp5&Kp6; Kp6&Kp7; Kp7&Kp8; Kp8&Kp1. Figure 2A-3. 2: Line Plot 2A-3. 3: Create Line Fillet Preprocessor>Modeling> Create>lines>line Fillet First fillet is created between lines KP3 &KP4 and line KP4& KP5 fillet radius is 3. mm, click apply. Second Fillet is created between line KP4 & KP5 and KP5 & KP6, fillet radius 3. 2mm, click Ok. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page37 Figure 2A-3. 3 Plot of section to show Fillet 2A-3. 4 Create area: The area is created by selecting all the lines Preprocessor>Modeling>Create >Area>Arbitrary>Byline Figure 2A-3. 4: Plot of created area Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page38 2A-3. : Create an extrusion This is to convert the 2D area created to a 3D solid Cylinder Preprocessor>Modeling>Operate>Extrude>Area>about Axis Please note that I selected the about axis because we want the extrusion to be alike revolving the area 360o around the axis to be selected. The selected line joining KP1 & KP2 is use as the axis of rotation as this is the center line drawn when the lever arm is dissected into two equal halve from the origin. Figure2A-3. 5: Extrude area about axis Kp1& Kp8 (360o revolution) Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H.Wahyudi Page39 2A-3. 6: create the end point of the arm. Solid cylinder command is use to create this end part. After creating this Volume all the Volumes are added together to form one complete component. Table 3: Features for end part of lever arm Attributes WP X WP Y Radius Depth Part1 405mm 0mm 10mm 380mm Part2 405mm 0mm 10mm -80mm Figure 2A-3. 6: Complete Model Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page40 2A-4: Meshing Figure 2A-4: mesh plot of lever arm. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H.Wahyudi Page41 2A-5: Apply Boundary Conditions The first boundary condition applied is to fully restrain the left end of the lever arm. Displacement on area is used, and the area at the left end of the lever arm is picked. All Degree of freedom (ALL DOF) is set to zero. Lastly, the second boundary condition is applied. A force of 1890N in the negative Y-direction is applied to the right end of the lever arm. (Note that 1890N is use because my passport No. is A3543390A; and the last two digits on my passport no is 90 respectively). 2A-6: Solve the analysis The current load step is solved and result obta ined.To view the obtain result, under postprocessor, click load result and then nodal solution, stress, Von Mises stress. The result is plotted. 2A-7: Refined Mesh: for better result, the mesh is refined at the lines to minimum size of 1 as shown in Figure 2A-7 below. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page42 Figure 2A-6: Refined Mesh Plot Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page43 2A-7: Von-Mises stress at Element A The Von Mises stress obtained at A is 866. 984N/mm2Figure2A-8: Von Mises Plot displaying maximum stress obtained at A to be 866. 984 N/mm2. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page44 Task2B: Analytical Solution Y A Z 35. 5cm B F=1890N Figure2B-1 Free Body Diagram of the lever arm 38cm From Figure2B-1 above, the force on the 38cm cylinder, will cause a torque about element A. C The horizont al line from will be the axis upon which it will act. T V=1890N Ansys result 1 M 2nd result ( change position of F) Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. WahyudiPage45 Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page46 Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page47 No3: Modal Analysis of a simply supported rectangular beam Task3A: Finite Element Model Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page48 Figure 3A. 1 Geometric Model of beam. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page49 Figure3A-2: Mesh Plot of beam Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page50 Task3B: Boundary Condition The boundary condition is applied as followed, on the left side all DOF is se t to zero whereas on the right side only the vertical is set to zero ( i. e. Fy=0). Figure 3B-1: Boundary Conditions on the beam. Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page51 Task 3C: Procedure 3. 1. 1: Element Type: Solid Brick 8-node 45 (Solid45) 3. 1. 2: Material properties Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page52Geometric Modeling Create rectangle Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page53 Operate: Extrude for a length of 5cm which is equal to 0. 05m Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page54 Isometric view of model geometry Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page55 Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page56 First Freq uency: Mode shape Deformed shaped Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page57 Def + Undeformed Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page58 2nd mode shape Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page59 3rd Result Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page60 4th mode shape Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page61 Nangi Ebughni Okoria- Cume42-09/10-00089. , February 2012- MED 305-assigt1: Assessor: H. Wahyudi Page62

jason essays

jason essays We alone can not go down and get close enough to explore the Titanic. We now have the technology to build robotic machines to explore the ocean floor like Jason or Jason Jr. They are smaller than a submarine, actually a lot smaller, almost like a remote control car. The Titanic sank in the north Atlantic in 1912. Jason Jr. is very handy, it can reach as deep as 4000 meters. The reason they do not have Jason Jr. any more is because it got lost in 1991 off the Galapagos Island and was found 9000 feet down in the water, so it was replaced by Jason. They use remote controls like Jason and Jason Jr. because divers can not get in as close as Jason can. There also is a risk of a diver getting caught on something or getting stuck in the Titanic. Someone could die if something went wrong so if they use underwater vehicles like Jason they are not taking a risk of someone dying, but they cost about one million dollars which requires they still be careful. Jason is a somewhat small vehicle with about four fans. Jason has two special headlights that could withstand underwater pressure to about 4000 meters and a video camera and also a small 35mm still camera. Jason Jr. gave the world the very first look at the Titanic so that we can see what they are looking at and where the are going. It has a 91-meter cord attached to it from Alvin. Alvin is a little submarine that fits one person and he is the controller of Jason. Titanic disaster was said to be one of the worst maritime disasters in history. The British luxury liner Titanic on its voyage from Liverpool to New York City struck an iceberg about 95 mi. south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland just before midnight on April 14, 1912. Of the more than 2220 persons aboard about 1513 died including the American millionaires John Jacob Astor Benjamin Guggenheim, 1865-1912, and Isidor Straus. The ship was said to have been unsinkable because of its 16 watertight compartments but the ice ...

The Five Fundamental Types of Editing and Which One Is Right for You

The Five Fundamental Types of Editing and Which One Is Right for You So, the hard part is over- youve written a manuscript or paper and youre now ready to move forward on the next step, which is working with an editor toward getting it published.However, a quick online search of the scope of editors and editing services offered is enough to overwhelm even the calmest of writers. Looking through freelance profiles or online agencies, youll come across various terms for services provided, including developmental editing, line editing, copyediting, proofreading, and manuscript critiquing.Which do you choose? How is one different than the other? Do you need a copyeditor and a line editor, or will one suffice? You likely have a lot of questions about the scope of editing services available, so in this article, we will break it down for you to help clear up any confusion you might have. Well discuss what each type of editing service is to help you narrow your search, specifically what professional skills are needed to perform that service, and at what stage s in the writing process you might need each.Developmental editingThink of a developmental editor as your mentor and guide for a particular manuscript. In the publishing industry, a developmental editor would assist authors from the early stages of the manuscript submission process, before a line editor, copyeditor, or proofreader even sees a word thats written.In publishing houses, the developmental editor is sometimes simply known as the editor-in-chief or associate editor. Many published books will go through a round of developmental editing (where significant parts of the manuscript are changed) and in some cases, a writer might work with a developmental editor at the planning stages of a manuscript that is yet to be written.A developmental editor would focus on issues, such as:The structure of your bookWhether your book will be marketable, and if not, how to make it marketableAny gaps in plot or characterizationAn unclear audience or lack of engagement with audienceMajor change s that need to be made regarding pacing, dialogue, or plotWhen working with a developmental editor, its important to keep an open mind and receive all feedback graciously. A developmental editor is not there to tear apart your writing (although it might seem like it at times) or make you feel incompetent as an author. He or she is there to help make your book a success and has a birds-eye view of the publishing industry and genre that you wont have in most cases.Line editingA line edit will generally occur before a copyedit is done and is meant to address the writing style and overall effectiveness of the content of the work. In other words, it is not the line editors task to find the grammar, punctuation, spelling or syntax errors of the copy, although he or she might do this to a certain extent.Mostly, a line editor would be responsible for pointing out any of the following in your writing:Problems with the emotion or tone of your writingClichà ©s or broad generalizations youve u sedProblems with your word choice or repetitive wordingRedundant or extraneous wordsRun-on sentencesFaulty transitions (or a lack of transitions)Off-topic digressionsDialogue that does not flow well or is hard to follow/readShifts in tense or point of viewPoor word choice, bland writing, or an unengaging toneDetails that need to be added for clarification for the readerAs you can see, line editing involves looking at the content to consider its overall effectiveness. For example, a line editor for a doctoral dissertation would look at the big picture and determine the usefulness of the study, how well the author has reviewed the literature related to the topic, and whether enough details are included for a convincing argument. A line editor would also point out if there are any confusing parts that are difficult to read or understand, or if there are any glaring errors in verb tense and word choice throughout.CopyeditingCopyediting is a type of editing that focuses on the technical issues of the copy. The best equipped copyeditor is one who has excellent command of English language rules, including grammar, punctuation, capitalization, spelling, syntax, citation formats and more. Included in a copyedit should be:Corrections to spelling, grammar, punctuation, and syntax. This includes corrections between British and American spellings of words, depending on the audience. For example, a copyeditor would be responsible for changing the punctuation and/or spelling if an author using British English rules publishes in an American publication.Changes to ensure consistency in spelling, punctuation, numerals, fonts, spacing and capitalization. For example, a copyeditor would catch when five is spelled out in one section of the work but written as the numeral 5 in another. He or she would then make the necessary adjustments to ensure consistency throughout the entire manuscript or paper.Notes on false or questionable information such as incorrect quotes, dates, or clai ms. This is especially important in the publishing world, where false information could lead to defamation lawsuits or a loss of reputation for the publication.Notes on the effectiveness or macro-level issues of the copy, including consistency in details of characters, places, etc.A thorough understanding and check of the formatting style required (Chicago, APA, MLA, etc.). A copyeditor should be well-versed in the rules related to the style and be able to correct any formatting, citation or punctuation errors within the copy that dont follow it.Analysis of any legal issues that might result from publication of the work, such as plagiarism or defamation lawsuits.In the various stages of the editing process, a copyedit would come after a line edit. In publishing circles, a copyeditor is usually the last person to see the copy before it goes to print.ProofreadingIn the stages of editing for publication, proofreading would be what occurs after the publication or manuscript has been pri nted once to obtain the proof. After given this proof, a proofreader would examine it to make sure that it includes everything in the original copy and make note of anything that is missing.A proofreader would then look at the proof to make sure the page numbers are correctly formatted and numbered, as well as ensure there are no incorrectly spaced line breaks or paragraphs. This includes checking to make sure each paragraph is set apart from the rest and that lines do not overlap each other or go off the printed page.As with other specific types of editing, a proofreaders job might overlap with the copywriter or line editor. However, his or her primary responsibility in the publishing world would be to examine the official proof before the final print run.Manuscript critiquing and/or book doctoringManuscript critiquing or book doctoring is when an editor reads your manuscript and provides a comprehensive assessment of it. Obviously, editors who offer this service should have extens ive experience in the industry to provide valuable critique that would greatly increase an authors chance of being published. That critique might include aspects of the manuscript such as:Character development. Have your characters been developed well enough? Does your reader connect with them?Pacing. Is the pacing too fast or too slow? Could improvements be made in pacing to make the story easier to follow or understand?Dialogue. Do your characters have believable dialogue that adds dimension to them? Is the dialogue formatted correctly and is it readable?Potential holes in the story or problems with the plot. Are there missing pieces to the puzzle in your plot that might annoy readers if they are left out of the story? Are there leaps of faith in the plot that might not make sense to a large portion of readers?Its important to know that this type of editing will likely not include line editing or copyediting, unless those are specially offered as part of a package deal. Rather, an editor offering a manuscript critique will use his or her experience in the industry to give you an honest outlook on what your manuscript has to offer and what it is lacking from the point of view of traditional publishing houses and current trends in the industry.A final wordJust as editing services offered will vary, so will the professional experience of editors. Thats why its important to choose an editor who has extensive experience in the industry or field for which you are writing, and can give informed, quality feedback to help you in your publishing efforts. For example, an editor might have an impressive resume in academic research and publishing but not know much at all about publishing in a magazine. Since the world of academic writing is vastly different than that of magazine writing, an editor specializing in one will not be the best informed concerning trends and expectations in the industry of the other.

5 Misplaced Phrases

5 Misplaced Phrases 5 Misplaced Phrases 5 Misplaced Phrases By Mark Nichol The flexibility of the English language is a blessing and a curse: It is commendable because it invites creativity, but the feature can also be a flaw, leading to confused context. In these five sentences, the faulty positioning of a phrase mars the meaning. 1. â€Å"Meanwhile, his supporters continue to physically assault and terrorize student protesters.† When only the first of two parallel verbs is preceded by an adverb, that word is assumed to modify both verbs, but although it is possible to physically terrorize someone, that probably isn’t the writer’s meaning. To distinguish that the adverb modifies only the first verb and because physical assault is more egregious than terrorizing, and ascending order is an effective syntactical scheme the order in which the verbs appear should be inverted: â€Å"Meanwhile, his supporters continue to terrorize and physically assault student protesters.† 2. â€Å"For all its faults, the Bush administration regards the regime as an ally in the so-called war on terror.† This sentence structure suggests that the faults are being attributed to the Bush administration, rather than to the regime. To correct this misstatement, relocate the interjection â€Å"for all its faults† to follow the reference to the latter government rather than the former: â€Å"The Bush administration regards the regime, for all its faults, as an ally in the so-called war on terror.† 3. â€Å"The battle lines had been drawn, but I waged my war against plagiarism, determined that I would not could not lose for my students’ sake.† The placement of â€Å"for my students’ sake† at the end of the sentence, after lose, creates the impression that the idea is of the teacher losing for the sake of his or her students. The statement is clearer when the phrase is inserted parenthetically earlier in the sentence: â€Å"The battle lines had been drawn, but for my students’ sake, I waged my war against plagiarism, determined that I would not could not lose.† 4. â€Å"They whisper to each other across the room from their respective twin beds.† The proximity of â€Å"across the room† to â€Å"from their respective twin beds† implies that the whisperers are located together across from where the beds are situated. To more clearly express that each whisperer is on or in his or her own bed, attach â€Å"across the room† to whisper, the verb the phrase modifies. â€Å"They whisper across the room to each other from their respective twin beds.† 5. â€Å"She picked Verrà ¼ckt nach Mary off the shelf, the German-dubbed version of There’s Something About Mary, and held the package up.† Here, the fact that shelf immediately precedes â€Å"the German-dubbed version of There’s Something About Mary† implies that they are in apposition, meaning that the phrase describes the shelf). However, it is an appositive describing the movie with the German title, so it should immediately follow the title: â€Å"She picked Verrà ¼ckt nach Mary, the German-dubbed version of There’s Something About Mary, off the shelf and held the package up.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the General category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:How to Structure A Story: The Eight-Point Arc15 Great Word GamesWhat the heck are "learnings"?